Using the designations of the elements from the periodic table. Chemical elements
The Periodic Table of the Elements had a great influence on the subsequent development of chemistry.
Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834-1907)
Not only was it the first natural classification of the chemical elements, which showed that they form a coherent system and are in close connection with each other, but it was also a powerful tool for further research.
At the time when Mendeleev compiled his table on the basis of the periodic law he discovered, many elements were still unknown. So, the element of the fourth period, scandium, was unknown. In terms of atomic weight, titanium followed calcium, but titanium could not be placed immediately after calcium, since it would fall into the third group, while titanium forms the highest oxide, and, according to other properties, should be assigned to the fourth group. Therefore, Mendeleev skipped one cell, i.e., left a free space between calcium and titanium. On the same basis, in the fourth period, two free cells were left between zinc and arsenic, now occupied by the elements gallium and germanium. There were also empty seats in other rows. Mendeleev was not only convinced that there must be elements yet unknown to fill these places, but he also predicted the properties of such elements in advance, based on their position among other elements of the periodic system. One of them, which in the future was to take a place between calcium and titanium, he gave the name ekabor (since its properties were supposed to resemble boron); the other two, for which there were empty places in the table between zinc and arsenic, were called eka-aluminum and ekasilicium.
Over the next 15 years, Mendeleev's predictions were brilliantly confirmed: all three expected elements were discovered. First, the French chemist Lecoq de Boisbaudran discovered gallium, which has all the properties of ekaaluminum; after that, scandium, which had the properties of ecabor, was discovered in Sweden by L. F. Nilson, and, finally, a few more years later, in Germany, K. A. Winkler discovered an element that he called germanium, which turned out to be identical to ecasilium.
To judge the amazing accuracy of Mendeleev's prediction, let's compare the properties of ecasilicon predicted by him in 1871 with the properties of germanium discovered in 1886:
The discovery of gallium, scandium and germanium was the greatest triumph of the periodic law.
The periodic system was also of great importance in establishing the valency and atomic masses of certain elements. So, the element beryllium for a long time was considered an analogue of aluminum and its oxide was assigned the formula . Based on the percentage composition and the proposed formula of beryllium oxide, its atomic mass was considered equal to 13.5. The periodic system showed that there is only one place for beryllium in the table, namely, above magnesium, so its oxide must have the formula , whence the atomic mass of beryllium is equal to ten. This conclusion was soon confirmed by the determination of the atomic mass of beryllium from the vapor density of its chloride.
Exactly And today the periodic law remains the guiding thread and the guiding principle of chemistry. It is on its basis that transuranium elements have been artificially created in recent decades, located in the periodic system after uranium. One of them - element No. 101, first obtained in 1955 - was named mendelevium in honor of the great Russian scientist.
The discovery of the periodic law and the creation of a system of chemical elements was of great importance not only for chemistry, but also for philosophy, for our entire understanding of the world. Mendeleev showed that the chemical elements constitute a coherent system, which is based on the fundamental law of nature. This is the expression of the position of materialist dialectics on the interconnection and interdependence of natural phenomena. Revealing the relationship between the properties of chemical elements and the mass of their atoms, the periodic law was a brilliant confirmation of one of the universal laws of the development of nature - the law of the transition of quantity into quality.
The subsequent development of science made it possible, relying on the periodic law, to know the structure of matter much more deeply than was possible during the life of Mendeleev.
The theory of the structure of the atom developed in the 20th century, in turn, gave the periodic law and the periodic system of elements a new, deeper illumination. Brilliant confirmation was found by Mendeleev's prophetic words: "The periodic law is not threatened with destruction, but only a superstructure and development are promised."
Learning new material .
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev- a brilliant Russian scientist who managed to create a strictly scientific classification of chem. elements, which is the Periodic system. It contains all the chemical elements known to science, the entire diversity of the surrounding world is built from elements, the elements in this table are usually denoted by chemical signs or symbols. In order to use the table, you need to know the "chemical language" or "chemical alphabet". There are 33 letters in the Russian alphabet, and 109 in the chemical alphabet.
In this post, you will learn how to correctly designate chemical elements.
Signs of chemical elements.
So, in your opinion, it is easiest to write a chemical phenomenon with signs, but which ones?
The exact same problem arose before the chemists of the Middle Ages.
At that time, scientists, they were called, as you remember, alchemists, knew 10 chemical elements - seven metals (gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, lead and mercury) and three non-metals (sulphur, carbon and antimony).
The alchemists believed that the chemical elements were associated with the stars and planets and assigned astrological symbols to them.
Gold was called the Sun, and was indicated by a circle with a dot.Copper - Venus, the symbol of this metal was the "Venus mirror". Alchemists did without chemical formulas for a very long time. There were strange signs in use, and almost every chemist used his own system of notation for substances. It was very inconvenient. There was a real confusion: the same chemical reactions were written in different signs. It was necessary to enter single system designations.
In the 18th century, a system of designation of elements (of which three dozen had already become known at that time) took root in the form of geometric figures - circles, semicircles, triangles, squares.
The symbols for chemical elements currently in use were introduced by the Swedish chemist Jens Jakob Berzelius.
Each element has its own symbol, understandable to scientists of any country. The first, capital, letter of the symbol is always the first letter of the element's full Latin name. If the names of several elements begin with such a letter, then one more letter is added to the first letter.
For example: Oxygen - Oxуgenium - O
Carbon - Сarboneum - C
Calcium - Calcium - Ca
Characters are pronounced according to the letter of the Latin alphabet.
For example: oxygen - O - "o"
nitrogen - N - "en"
Others are read in Russian.
For example: calcium - Ca - "calcium"
Sodium - Na - "sodium"
You don't need to memorize all the elements. But for our further work, a number of elements must be learned.
All of them are recorded in the textbook on page 35. All elements can be conditionally divided into metals and non-metals.
Etymology of the names of chemical elements:
Consider the etymology of the names of chemical elements, i.e. the origin of their names.
The name reflects the most important property of a simple substance formed by this element: hydrogen - "giving birth to water", phosphorus - "carrying light"
Myths of the ancient Greeks: promethium - prometheus, tantalum - tantalum
- geographical names
Geographical names: states - gallium, germanium, polonium, ruthenium; cities - lutetium (Paris), hafnium (Copenhagen).
- astronomical names
Astronomy: selenium - moon, tellurium - earth, uranium, neptunium
- names of scientists
Names of great scientists: fermium, curium, einsteinium, mendelevium
The structure of the Periodic system of chemical elements of D.I. Mendeleev
Now we will consider with you, perhaps, the most important document, a “hint” for any chemist. Open the flyleaf of your textbook, and also use the tables that are on your desks. Before you is the table "Periodic system of Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev." As you can see, they are somewhat different, but not significantly. The periodic system is the Big House of Chemical Elements, which was built in 1869 by D. I. Mendeleev.
GROUPS, each of which consists of the main (elements on the left) and secondary (elements on the right) subgroups. Each element has its own separate “apartment” with a serial number.Some "entrances" - groups , have a common name reflecting their common properties: alkali metals, halogens, noble or inert gases .
In addition, separately below, in the "basement" are lanthanides and actinides, which are very similar to lanthanum, and others to actinium.
The table also reflects the belonging of the element to a certain group: metal, non-metal or transition element.
The Periodic Table of Elements was the first natural classification of chemical elements, showing that they are interconnected with each other, and also served as further research.
When Mendeleev compiled his table on the basis of the periodic law he discovered, many elements were still unknown. Like, for example, the three elements of the 4th period. Presumably, the elements were called ekabor (its properties should resemble boron), ekaaluminum, ekasilicium. Within 15 years, Mendeleev's predictions were confirmed. French chemist Lecoq de Boisbaudran discovered gallium, which has all the properties of ekaaluminum, L.F. Nilson discovered scandium, and K.A. Winkler discovered the element germanium, which has the properties of ecasilicon.
The discovery of Ga, Sc, Ge is proof of the existence of the periodic law. The periodic system was also of great importance in establishing the valency and atomic masses of certain elements, correcting some of them. Based on the periodic law, transuranium elements have now been created.
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Metals and alloys in engineering
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Calcium
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Aluminum. The use of aluminum and its alloys
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aluminum oxide and hydroxide
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General characteristics of the chromium subgroup
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Oxides and hydroxides of chromium
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Iron compounds
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domain process
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Cast iron and steel
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In chemical reactions, one substance is transformed into another. To understand how this happens, you need to remember from the course of natural history and physics that substances are made up of atoms. There are a limited number of types of atoms. Atoms can be connected to each other in various ways. Just as hundreds of thousands of different words are formed when the letters of the alphabet are added together, so molecules or crystals of different substances are formed from the same atoms.
Atoms can form molecules- the smallest particles of a substance that retain its properties. For example, several substances are known that are formed from only two types of atoms - oxygen atoms and hydrogen atoms, but by different types of molecules. These substances include water, hydrogen and oxygen. The water molecule consists of three particles connected to each other. This is what atoms are.
To the oxygen atom (oxygen atoms are denoted in chemistry by the letter O) two hydrogen atoms are attached (they are denoted by the letter H).
An oxygen molecule is made up of two oxygen atoms; A hydrogen molecule is made up of two hydrogen atoms. Molecules can be formed in the course of chemical transformations, or they can decay. Thus, each water molecule breaks down into two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Two water molecules form twice as many hydrogen and oxygen atoms.
Identical atoms bond in pairs to form molecules of new substances- hydrogen and oxygen. Molecules are thus destroyed, while atoms are preserved. This is where the word "atom" came from, which means in translation from ancient Greek "indivisible".
Atoms are the smallest chemically indivisible particles of matter.
In chemical transformations, other substances are formed from the same atoms that made up the original substances. Just as microbes became accessible to observation with the invention of the microscope, so atoms and molecules became accessible with the invention of devices that give even greater magnification and even allow atoms and molecules to be photographed. In such photographs, atoms look like blurry spots, and molecules look like a combination of such spots. However, there are also phenomena in which atoms divide, atoms of one type turn into atoms of other types. At the same time, artificially obtained and such atoms that are not found in nature. But these phenomena are studied not by chemistry, but by another science - nuclear physics. As already mentioned, there are other substances, which include hydrogen and oxygen atoms. But, regardless of whether these atoms are included in the composition of water molecules, or in the composition of other substances, these are atoms of the same chemical element.
Chemical element - certain kind atoms How many types of atoms are there? To date, a person is reliably aware of the existence of 118 types of atoms, that is, 118 chemical elements. Of these, 90 types of atoms are found in nature, the rest are obtained artificially in laboratories.
Symbols of chemical elements
In chemistry, chemical symbols are used to designate chemical elements. It's the language of chemistry. To understand speech in any language, you need to know the letters, in chemistry in the same way. In order to understand and describe the properties of substances, and the changes that occur with them, it is first of all necessary to know the symbols of chemical elements. In the era of alchemy, the chemical elements were known much less than now. Alchemists identified them with planets, various animals, ancient deities. Currently, the notation introduced by the Swedish chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius is used all over the world. In his system, chemical elements are denoted by the initial or one of the subsequent letters of the Latin name of a given element. For example, the element silver is denoted by the symbol - Ag (lat. Argentum). Below are the symbols, pronunciations of the symbols, and the names of the most common chemical elements. They need to be memorized!
The Russian chemist Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev was the first to order the variety of chemical elements, and on the basis of the Periodic Law he discovered, he compiled the Periodic System of chemical elements. How is the Periodic Table of chemical elements arranged? Figure 58 shows a short period version of the Periodic System. The Periodic System consists of vertical columns and horizontal rows. The horizontal lines are called periods. To date, all known elements are placed in seven periods.
Periods are designated by Arabic numerals from 1 to 7. Periods 1-3 consist of one row of elements - they are called small.
Periods 4–7 consist of two rows of elements, they are called large. The vertical columns of the Periodic System are called groups of elements.
There are eight groups in total, and Roman numerals from I to VIII are used to designate them.
Allocate main and secondary subgroups. Periodic System- a universal reference book of a chemist, with its help you can get information about chemical elements. There is another type of Periodic System - long period. In the long period form of the Periodic Table, the elements are grouped differently, and are divided into 18 groups.
PeriodicSystems elements are grouped by "families", that is, in each group of elements there are elements with similar, similar properties. In this variant Periodic System, group numbers, as well as periods, are denoted by Arabic numerals. Periodic System of Chemical Elements D.I. Mendeleev
The prevalence of chemical elements in nature
Atoms of elements found in nature, distributed in it very unevenly. In space, the most common element is hydrogen, the first element in the Periodic Table. It accounts for about 93% of all atoms in the universe. About 6.9% are helium atoms - the second element of the Periodic Table.
The remaining 0.1% is accounted for by all other elements.
The abundance of chemical elements in the earth's crust differs significantly from their abundance in the universe. The earth's crust contains the most oxygen and silicon atoms. Together with aluminum and iron, they form the main compounds of the earth's crust. And iron and nickel- the main elements that make up the core of our planet.
Living organisms also consist of atoms of various chemical elements. The human body contains the most carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen atoms.
The result of the article about Chemical elements.
- Chemical element- a certain type of atom
- To date, a person is reliably aware of the existence of 118 types of atoms, that is, 118 chemical elements. Of these, 90 types of atoms are found in nature, the rest are artificially obtained in laboratories.
- There are two versions of the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements by D.I. Mendeleev - short term and long term
- Modern chemical symbolism is formed from the Latin names of chemical elements
- Periods- horizontal lines of the Periodic System. Periods are divided into small and large
- Groups- vertical rows of the periodic table. Groups are divided into main and secondary
GOU gymnasium No. 1505 "Moscow City Pedagogical Gymnasium-Laboratory"
abstract
Etymology of the names of chemical elements of the Periodic system of chemical elements D.I. Mendeleev
Fulfilled
Student 8"A" class
Gavrylyshyn Yura
Supervisor:
Zholty Vody
Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………… 3
§one. Elements-toponyms………………………………………………………………………. 5
§2. Elements named after researchers……………………………………………17
§3. Elements named after mythological heroes……….. ………………………21
§four. Elements named by their properties………………………………………………….33
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………….45
References…………………………………………………………………………………46
INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, there are a considerable number of different methods of teaching chemistry. In the 9th grade, students study a fairly large and interesting (although not at all simple) section of this science - the chemistry of elements. Teachers treat her teaching differently - someone forces them to “memorize” the material, someone conducts practical classes and takes students on excursions so that the material is better absorbed, and someone conducts the so-called. integration of the subject with some other science: history, literature, linguistics, etc., i.e. teaches one science through the prism of another. this work is an attempt to carry out a similar integration of chemistry with various humanities, in particular with linguistics. This is one of the branches of the so-called. humanization of the exact sciences. The purpose of this essay is to try to approach the subject from an alternative side, deepen your knowledge of the chemistry of elements, broaden your horizons and find answers to various questions related to the etymology of the names of chemical elements, because not much attention is paid to this area in modern school chemistry textbooks. A certain amount of reference literature was studied, I read several articles related to the etymology of the names of chemical elements, I used several dictionaries to write this work. Books were required in various subjects: chemistry, history, linguistics, mythology, because. different names required a different approach - all the names came from different languages and had different etymologies. Many of the names were rooted deep in history, so at times you had to guess or make your own small studies. The main objective of this essay was to cover as many elements as possible from the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements of D.I. Mendeleev, explain as many names as possible, and also break the elements into logical groups related to the theme of their names.
We set ourselves the following tasks before writing the work:
1) Divide all the names of the elements into groups related to the subject of their name (geography, mythology, scientists, properties of the elements)
2) Find the origins of the names of each element
3) Make a conclusion based on the work done
4) Specific tasks:
a) for toponyms: arrange the elements in chronological order, find the places after which they were named
b) for "mythological" elements: find a hero corresponding to the name of the element, give a myth associated with a particular character
c) for elements named after scientists: identify the scientist after whom the element is named, provide some information about him
d) for elements named by properties: find the sign by which this or that element is named, subsequently dividing them into groups according to the nature of the property: color, smell, size, hardness, specific properties, etc.
§one. Elements-toponyms
- TOPONYM
a, m. (special). Own name of a separate geographical place (settlement, river, land, etc.).
The reasons why people named elements after a particular geographic location vary. The element could be discovered in this place (for example, dubnium - Dubna), or the scientist wanted to perpetuate his homeland in the name (polonium - Poland), and sometimes some hidden meaning was concluded in this (for example, california, whose discovery was identified by difficulty with the discovery of California). The presentation of the material in chronological order so that there are no contradictions with current place names - after all, many places have changed their name since this or that element was discovered. For example, lutetium. After all, it is impossible to guess that Lutetia is the Latin name for Paris.
Copper (Cu)
The Latin name for copper Cuprum (ancient Aes cuprium, Aes cyprium) comes from the name of the island of Cyprus, where already in the 3rd century. BC e. copper mines existed and copper was smelted. Strabo (the ancient Greek geographer and historiographer of the middle of the 1st century BC) calls copper "chalkos" from the name of the city of Chalkis on Euboea. AT modern sound, khalkos - ore. Many ancient Greek names of copper and bronze objects, blacksmith craft, blacksmith products and castings originated from this word. The second Latin name for copper is Aes (Sanskrit, ayas, Gothic aiz, German erz, English ore) means ore or mine. Proponents of the Indo-Germanic theory of the origin of European languages derive the Russian word copper (Polish miedz, Czech med) from the Old German smida (metal) and Schmied (blacksmith, English Smith). Of course, the relationship of the roots in this case is undoubted, however, in our opinion, both of these words are derived from the Greek. mine, mine independently of each other. Related names originated from this word - a medal, a medallion (French medaille). The words copper and copper are found in the oldest Russian literary monuments. The alchemists called copper Venus; in more ancient times, the name Mars is found.
Strontium (Sr)
It was found in the mineral stoncyan, found in 1764 in a lead mine near the Scottish village of Stoncian. Researchers mistook it for barium carbonate for a long time, but then, T.E. Lovitz carried out numerous reactions and found out that this element had nothing to do with barium. Electrolytic metallic strontium was obtained by Davy in 1808. In the Russian chemical literature of the early 19th century. there are names strontium (Gize, 1813), strontian (Iovskiy, 1822), strontian (Strakhov, 1825), strontium (Dvigubsky and Pavlov, 1825); in addition, the name "the base of strontium earth" was often used.
Beryllium (Be)
The oxide of this element was first obtained in 1798 by the French chemist L.N. Vauquelin in the analysis of the mineral beryl Be 3 Al 2 Si 6 O 18 . Emerald and aquamarine have the same composition (impurities of various elements give it color). Emerald deposits have been known in India since ancient times.
Magnesium and manganese (mg, Mn)
With these two elements, the story turned out to be a long one. Even the ancient Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus studied samples of a black mineral that attracts iron. He named it "magnetis lithos" - a stone from Magnesia, a mountainous area in Thessaly, eastern northern Greece. It was a famous area. Jason built the Argo ship there, from here Hercules' friend Philoctetes drove ships near Troy. The name of the magnet comes from Magnesia. It is now known that it was magnetic iron ore - black iron oxide Fe 3 O 4 .
What about magnesium and manganese? The Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder used the term magnetis(or magnes) to designate a similar black mineral, which, however, did not have magnetic properties (Pliny explained this as the "feminine" stone). Later, this mineral was called pyrolusite (from the Greek "pyr" - fire and "lusis" - cleaning, since when it was added to molten glass, it became discolored). It was manganese dioxide. In the Middle Ages, when copying manuscripts, magnes first turned into mangnes, then in manganes. In 1774, the Swedish mineralogist Yu. Gan isolated a new metal from pyrolusite and gave it the name manganes. In this form, it was fixed in European languages (English and French. manganese, German manga). The laws of the Russian language turned the combination "ngn" into "rgn" - this is how "manganese" appeared from "manganese".
In 1695, salt was isolated from the mineral water of the Epsom Spring in England, which had a bitter taste and laxative effect. Pharmacists called it bitter, Epsom salt, Epsomite mineral has the composition MgSO 4 7H 2 O. And chemists, acting on solutions of this salt with soda or potash, received a white precipitate - basic magnesium carbonate, which can have a different composition, for example 3MgCO 3 Mg (OH) 2 3H 2 O. It was white magnesia ( magnesia alba), it was used (and is now used) externally as a powder, and inside - with increased acidity and as a mild laxative. Basic magnesium carbonate is rarely found in nature, and magnesia alba also known since ancient times. Probably, this mineral was found near Magnesia, but most likely it was different. The fact is that the inhabitants of Magnesia founded two cities with the same name in Asia Minor, which could lead to confusion. One of these cities is now called Manisa and is located on the eastern tip of Turkey. The surroundings of this city are glorified by legends about Niobe. Another Magnesia was to the south, where the famous temple of Artemis was located.
Lavoisier considered white magnesia to be a simple solid. In 1808, the English chemist Humphrey Davy, by electrolysis of slightly moistened white magnesia with a mercury cathode, obtained an amalgam of a new metal (it contains up to 3% magnesium), which he isolated by distillation of mercury and called magnesia. Since then, in all European languages, this element is called magnesium and only in Russian - magnesium: that's what G.I. called it. Hess in his textbook of chemistry, published in 1831 and withstood seven editions. Many Russian chemists studied from this book.
Ruthenium (Ru)
This metal of the platinum group was discovered by K. K. Klaus in Kazan in 1844 during the analysis of the so-called factory platinum deposits. Having received from the Petersburg mint about 15 pounds of such residues, after extracting platinum and some platinum metals from the ore, Klaus fused the residues with saltpeter and extracted the water-soluble part (containing osmium, chromium and other metals). He subjected the water-insoluble residue to aqua regia and distilled to dryness. After treating the dry residue after distillation with boiling water and adding an excess of potash, Claus separated a precipitate of iron hydroxide, in which he detected the presence of an unknown element by the dark purple-red color of the precipitate in hydrochloric acid. Klaus isolated a new metal in the form of sulfide and proposed to call it ruthenium in honor of Russia (lat. Ruthenia - Russia). This name was first given in 1828 by Ozanne to one of the elements allegedly discovered by him. According to Ozanne, while analyzing the Nizhne-Tagilsk platinum ore, he discovered three platinum metals: ruthenium, pluran (an abbreviation of the words platinum of the Urals) and polyne (Greek - gray, according to the color of the solution). Berzelius, who checked Ozanne's analyzes, did not confirm his findings. Klaus, however, believed that Ozann received ruthenium oxide and mentioned this in his report of 1845. According to Zavidsky, ruthenium was discovered even earlier (1809) by the Vilna scientist Snyadetsky, the latter proposed to name it a message on behalf of the asteroid Vesta, discovered in 1807 G.
Gallium (Ga)
D.I. was predicted. Mendeleev as eka-aluminum (as an element in the aluminum subgroup - such predictions can be made on the basis of the periodic law) and discovered in 1875 by the French chemist Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran, who named it in honor of his homeland ( Gallia is the Latin name for France. The symbol of France is the rooster (in French - le coq), so that in the name of the element its discoverer implicitly perpetuated his surname as well.
Lutetium (Lu)
The discovery of lutetium (English Lutecium, French Lutecium, German Lutetium) is associated with the study of the land of ytterbium. The history of discovery is complex and long. Mozander isolated erbium earth (erbium) from yttrium earth, and 25 years later, in 1878, Marignac showed that in gadolinite, along with erbium, there is another earth, which he called ytterbium. The following year, Nilson isolated scandium from ytterbium, which contains the element scandium. Ytterbium was then not studied until 1905, when Urbain, and a little later, Auer von Welsbach, reported that there were two more new earths in Marignac's ytterbium, one of which contains the element lutetium (Lutetium), and the other the element neoytterbium (Neoytterbium).
Auer von Welsbach named these elements Cassiopeium and Aldebaranium, respectively. For a number of years, both names were used in the chemical literature. In 1914, the International Commission on Atomic Weights decided to adopt the name lutetium for element 71, and ytterbium for element 70. The word lutetium Urbain derived from lutetium (Lutetia) - the ancient Latin name for Paris (Lutetia Parisorum).
Yttrium, ytterbium, terbium, erbium (Y, Yb, Tb, Er)
In 1787, an amateur mineralogist Karl Arrhenius found a new mineral in a quarry near the small Swedish town of Ytterby on the island of Ruslagen near Stockholm, which they called ytterbite. Subsequently, several new elements were discovered in it. The Finnish chemist Johan Gadolin in 1794 discovered the oxide of one of them in this mineral. The Swede Ekeberg named it yttrium earth in 1797 ( yttria). Later, the mineral was renamed gadolinite, and the element contained in it was called yttrium. In 1843, the Swedish chemist Carl Mosander showed that "yttrium earth" was a mixture of three oxides. Just as this mixture was “split” into components, its name was “split” as well. This is how ytterbium, terbium and erbium appeared. Mosander himself was able to isolate pure oxides of erbium and terbium; pure ytterbium oxide was isolated in 1878 by the Swiss chemist Jean Marignac, who owns the honor of discovering this element. However, the history of the mineral did not end there ...
Germanium (Ge)
As early as 1871, Mendeleev foresaw the existence of an element similar to silicon, eka-silicium (Eka-Silicium). Fifteen years later, in 1885, a professor of mineralogy at the Freiberg Mining Academy Welsbach discovered a new mineral at the Himmelfurst mine, near Freiberg, which he called argyrodite, due to the presence of silver in the mineral. Welsbach asked Winkler to make a complete analysis of the mineral sample. Winkler found that the total sum of the constituent parts of the mineral does not exceed 93 - 94% of the sample taken and, therefore, some unknown element is present in the mineral, not detected by analysis. After hard work in early February 1886, he discovered the salts of a new element and isolated a certain amount of the element itself in its pure form. In the first report of the discovery, Winkler suggested that the new element was analogous to antimony and arsenic. This idea caused a literary controversy that did not subside until it was established that the new element was ekasilicon, predicted by Mendeleev. Winkler proposed to call the element neptunium, meaning that the history of its discovery is similar to the history of the discovery of the planet Neptune predicted by Leverrier. However, it turned out that the name Neptunium had already been given to one falsely discovered element, and Winkler renamed the element he discovered to germanium (Germanium) in honor of his fatherland. This name has caused sharp objections from some scientists. For example, one of them pointed out that this name is similar to the name of a flower - geranium (Geranium). In the heat of controversy, Raymond suggested jokingly calling the new element Angularium, that is, angular, causing controversy. However, Mendeleev, in a letter to Winkler, strongly supported the name germanium.
Holmium (Ho)
In 1879, the Swiss chemist and physicist J.L. Soret discovered a new element in "erbium earth" by spectral analysis. The name was given to him by the Swedish chemist P.T. Kleve in honor of Stockholm (its old Latin name Holmia), since the mineral from which Kleve himself isolated the oxide of the new element in 1879 was found near the capital of Sweden.
thulium (Tm)
The discovery of thulium (thulium earth), like many other elements, dates back to the time when the arsenal of means for studying rare earths was enriched by the method of spectral analysis. The prehistory of the discovery of thulium is as follows. At the end of the XVIII century. Eckeberg isolated yttrium earth from gadolinite, which was considered pure yttrium oxide until Mosander divided it into three earths - yttrium, terbium and erbium. In 1878, Marignac isolated two lands from the terbium earth of Mozander, called erbium and ytterbium. The study of the mixture of lands did not stop there. The very next year, Cleve divided the erbium of Marignac into three lands - erbium, holmium (which turned out to be a mixture) and thulium. He asked Nilson (who discovered scandium) for the residue from the extraction of scandium and ytterbium, believing that this preparation was a relatively pure solution of erbium salts. However, after hundreds of repeated operations of precipitation and dissolution of the drug, erbium still contained some kind of impurity: the atomic weight of erbium in different fractions was not the same. Kleve turned to Talen, professor of physics at Uppsala University, with a request to study the absorption spectra of these fractions and compare them with the spectra of samples of erbium, ytterbium and yttrium. Talen discovered lines belonging to erbium and holmium in the erbium fraction; the third spectrum indicated the presence of a new element. This is how thulium was discovered, named Kleve in honor of the ancient (Roman times) name of Scandinavia - Thule. Then Cleve processed 11 kg of gadolinite, isolated thulium oxide and examined its pale green salts. Pure thulium oxide was obtained, however, only in 1911. How difficult it was to determine thulium, and even more so to isolate its pure oxide chemically, is evidenced by such facts, for example. The master of spectroscopic research, Lecoq de Boisbaudran, believed that there were two thulium, and the largest researcher of rare earths, Auer von Welsbach, stated that he had even established the presence of even three thulium.
Previously, the symbol for thulium was Tu, not Tm, as it is now. In some chemical writings of the end of the last and the beginning of the current century, "thulium" was often erroneously written.
Scandium (sc)
In 1871, Mendeleev, on the basis of the periodic law he discovered, predicted the existence of several elements, including an analogue of boron, which he called eka - boron. Mendeleev predicted not only the element itself, but also all the basic properties: atomic and specific gravity, chemical properties, oxide and chloride formulas, properties of salts, etc. Eight years later, his prediction was fully confirmed. Nilson, a professor of analytical chemistry at Uppsala, studied the minerals euxenite and gadolinite containing rare earths. His goal was to isolate compounds of rare earth elements in their pure form from minerals, to determine their physicochemical constants and to clarify the places of elements in the periodic system. Nilson isolated 69 g of erbium earth from euxenite and gadolinite with an admixture of other rare earths. Dividing this sample, he received a large amount of ytterbium oxide and an unknown earth, which he took for oxide of a rare earth element. But a more detailed study showed that this is some kind of new element. Nilson named it scandium after his homeland of Scandinavia. The identity of the new element with Mendeleev's eka-boron was pointed out by another Uppsala scientist Kleve, in particular, he drew attention to the similarity of the oxide formulas, the colorlessness of the salts and the insolubility of the oxide in alkalis. After that, the new element took the place indicated by Mendeleev in the periodic system. Until 1908, there was an opinion that scandium is extremely rare in nature. Crookes and Eberhard proved the widespread distribution of this element in a dispersed state. Metallic scandium was obtained in 1914, and in 1936 Fischer developed a method for its isolation by electrolysis from a melt of alkali metal chlorides.
Europium (Eu)
French chemist E.A. Demarce isolated europium from a mixture of rare earth metals in 1886. Its existence was confirmed by spectral analysis only 15 years later, when Demarce gave the new element the name europium (Europium) in honor of the continent of Europe in 1901.
Polonium (Po)
In 1898, while studying uranium pitch from Bohemia, containing up to 75% uranium, Curie
Skłodowska noticed that tar has a significantly higher radioactivity than pure uranium preparations isolated from the same tar. This suggested that the mineral contains one or more new elements of high radioactivity. In July of the same year, Curie-Sklodowska made a complete analysis of uranium pitch, carefully monitoring the radioactivity of each product isolated from it. The analysis turned out to be very difficult, since the mineral contained several elements. Two fractions had increased radioactivity; one of them contained bismuth salts, the other - barium salts. A product was isolated from the bismuth fraction, the activity of which was 400 times higher than that of uranium. Curie-Sklodowska came to the natural conclusion that such a high activity is due to the presence of salts of some hitherto unknown metal. She named it polonium (Polonium) in honor of her homeland Paul (lat. Polonia - Poland). However, for several years after this discovery, the existence of polonium was considered controversial. In 1902, Markwald checked the analysis of uranium resin on a large amount of the mineral (about 2 tons). He isolated the bismuth fraction, discovered a “new” element in it and named it radiotellurium (Radiotellurium), since, being highly radioactive, the metal was similar to tellurium in other properties. As Markwald determined, the radiotellurium salt he isolated was a million times more active than uranium and 1000 times more active than polonium. The element has an atomic weight of 212 and a density of 9.3. Mendeleev at one time predicted the existence of an element with such properties and, based on its supposed position in the periodic system, called the element dwi-tellurium. In addition, Markwald's findings have been confirmed by several researchers. However, Rutherford soon established that radiotellurium is one of the radioactive decay products of the uranium series, and named the element Ra-F (Radium-F). Only a few years later it became obvious that polonium, radiotellurium and radium-F are one and the same element with alpha and gamma radiation and a half-life of about 140 days. As a result, it was recognized that the priority of the discovery of a new element belongs to the Polish scientist, and the name proposed by her was left.
Hafnium (Hf)
For a long time, chemists suspected that zirconium minerals contained an admixture of some unknown element. Back in 1845, the Swedish chemist Svanberg reported the discovery of an element in zircon, which he called norium (Norium). After that, many researchers reported the discovery of this element, but every time it was a mistake. In 1895, Thomsen, on the basis of the periodic law, showed that between the rare earths and tantalum there must exist an element that differs from the rare earths, but is close to zirconium. In 1911, Urbain, engaged in the isolation of yttrium earth from gadolinite, discovered that one fraction gives several unknown spectral lines. He came to the conclusion about the existence of a new element belonging to the group of rare earths, and named it Celtium (Celtium). After Moseli discovered the X-ray spectra of the elements and their serial numbers were established (1913 -1914), it turned out that the new element should have atomic number 72. However, Moseli did not find the line of this element in Urbain's celtium. Assuming that the imperfect technique for determining X-ray spectra was to blame, Urbain asked the physicist Deauvillier to repeat the experiment. Deauville was able to detect two faint lines characteristic of element 72, in connection with which the element was given the name Celtium. But the very next year, Koster and Hevesy found these lines and several similar ones in various zircons. This served as evidence that element 72 does not belong to the rare earths, but is an analogue of zirconium. Shortly thereafter, element 72, isolated by Hevesy, both researchers, being Danes, decided to name hafnium (Hafnium) from the ancient name of the city of Copenhagen (Hafnia, or Kjobnhafn), since their discovery was made in this city.
Rhenium (Re)
It was discovered in 1925 by German chemists Ida and Walter Noddack and named after the Rhine Province, Ida's birthplace.
Francium (Fr)
Francium is one of the four elements in Mendeleev's Periodic Table of Elements that were the last to be discovered. Indeed, by 1925 all the cells of the table of elements were filled in, with the exception of 43, 61, 85 and 87. Numerous attempts to discover these missing elements remained unsuccessful for a long time. Element 87 (eca-cesium (i.e., an element similar in properties to cesium; such predictions are made on the basis of the Periodic Law of Mendeleev and his own Periodic Table of Elements) were searched mainly in cesium minerals, hoping to find it as a companion of cesium. In 1929 Mr. Allison and Murphy reported their discovery of ecaesium in the mineral lepidolite and named the new element virginium after Allison's home state in the US In 1939, Hulubei discovered element 87 in pollux and named it moldovium Other authors also made presentations about the discovery of ecaesium 87, and the collection of its names was enriched with alkalinium and russium. However, all these discoveries were erroneous. In 1939, Perey of the Curie Institute in Paris was engaged in the purification of a preparation of actinium from various radioactive decay products. Through carefully controlled operations, she discovered beta radiation, which could not belong to any of the isotopes of the actinium decay series known at that time .. After the second world war, which interrupted the work of Perey, her conclusions were fully confirmed. In 1946, Perey proposed to name element 87 francium in honor of her homeland.
Americium (Am)
Obtained artificially in 1944 at the Metallurgical Laboratory of the University of Chicago by Glenn Seaborg and co-workers. The outer electron shell of the new element (5f) turned out to be similar to europium (4f). Therefore, the element was named after America, as europium is named after Europe.
Berkeley (bk)
Opened December 1949 Thompson, Ghiorso and Seaborg at the University of California at Berkeley. When the americium-241 isotope is irradiated with alpha particles (positively charged particles formed by 2 protons and 2 neutrons, the nucleus of the helium-4 atom (4 He 2+)). they obtained the Berkelium isotope 243 Bk. Since Bk has a structural similarity to terbium, it got its name from Mr. Ytterby in Sweden, and American scientists named their element after Mr. Berkeley. In Russian literature, the name berkelium is often found.
California (cf)
Obtained artificially in 1950 by the same group. As the authors wrote, with this name they wanted to indicate that it was as difficult for them to discover a new element as it was for the pioneers of America to reach California a century ago, because. was recognized on a very meager amount of the studied material (about 5000 atoms). In addition, the correspondence between the properties of californium and the rare earth element dysprosium was taken into account. The authors of the discovery reported that “dysprosium is named after a Greek word meaning hard to reach; the discovery of another (corresponding) element a century later was also hard to come by in California.”
Those. 1) 5000 particles: 6.02 × 10 23 (Avogadro's number - the number of particles in one mole of matter) = 8.3 × 10 -21 mol
2) 8.3 × 10 -21 × 251 g / mol ( molar mass California) = 2.083 × 10 -18 grams
Dubnium (Db)
Element 105 was first obtained at the accelerator in Dubna in 1970 by the group of G.N. Flerov and independently at Berkeley (USA). Soviet researchers proposed to call it nilsborium (Ns), in honor of Niels Bohr, the Americans - ganium (Ha), in honor of Otto Hahn, one of the authors of the discovery of spontaneous fission of uranium, the IUPAC commission - joliotium (Jl), in honor of Joliot Curie, or, so that no one would be offended, the Sanskrit numeral is unnilpentium (Unp), that is, simply the 105th. The symbols Ns, Na, Jl could be seen in the tables of elements published in different years. Now this element is called dubnium. The city and its specificity are reflected in literature - in the poems of Galich "And he lives not in nuclear Dubna, but in some research institute near Kashira ..."
Hassium (Hs)
The first reliable data on element 108 were obtained in 1984 in Dubna and independently and simultaneously on an accelerator near Darmstadt - a city in the federal state of Hesse, the Latin name of this ancient German principality, and then the Grand Duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt - Hassia, hence the name of the element (although in Russian it would be more logical to call it hessium). And with this element there was confusion in the names (it used to be called ganium).
§2. Elements named after explorers
In modern chemistry textbooks, little attention is paid to scientists, and only their discoveries and achievements are studied directly. This chapter is intended to expand knowledge about scientists and prominent researchers, one way or another involved in the discovery, study and naming of elements.
There is an opinion that young researchers (under 40) often perpetuate their names in the titles of their discoveries. We decided to check it out and found out that indeed, there was and perhaps there is such a trend!
Gadolinium (Gd)
In 1794, a professor of chemistry and mineralogy at the University of Abo (Finland), Gadolin, exploring a mineral found near the town of Ytterby, three miles from Stockholm, discovered an unknown earth (oxide) in it. A few years later, Ekeberg re-examined this earth and, having established the presence of beryllium in it, called it yttrium (Yttria). Mazander showed that yttrium earth consists of two earths, which he called terbium (Terbia) and erbium (Erbia). Further, Marignac in terbium earth, isolated from the mineral samarskite, discovered another earth - samarium (Samaria). In 1879, Lecoq de Boisbaudran singled out the same earth from didymium and the new earth, designated by him with the index “alfa”, and with the consent of Marignac named the latter gadolinium earth in honor of Gadolin, the first explorer of the mineral ytterbite. The element contained in gadolinium earth (Gadolinia) was called gadolinium (Gadolinium); in its pure form, it was obtained in 1896.
Samaria (Sm)
The discovery of samarium is the result of persistent chemical-analytical and spectral studies didimium earth isolated by Mozander from cerium earth. For decades after Mosander isolated didymium from lanthanum, the element didymium was thought to exist, although some chemists suspected it was a mixture of several elements. In the middle of the XIX century. a new source for obtaining didimium earth was the mineral samarskite, discovered by the Russian mining engineer V. M. Samarsky in the Ilmensky mountains; later samarskite was found in North America in the state of North Carolina. Many chemists have been analyzing samarskite. In 1878, Delafontaine, who studied samples of didyme isolated from samarskite, discovered two new blue lines in the spectrum. He decided that they belonged to a new element, and gave it the meaningful name decipium (lat. decipere - to fool, deceive). There were other reports of the discovery of new lines in the spectrum of didyma. This issue was resolved in 1879, when Lecoq de Boisbaudran, trying to separate didymium, found that the spectroscopic analysis of one of the fractions gave two blue lines with a wavelength of 400 and 417 Å. He came to the conclusion that these lines are different from the decipium lines Delafontaine, and suggested calling the new element Samarium, emphasizing that it was isolated from samarskite. Decipium turned out to be a mixture of samarium with other elements of didymium. The discovery of Lecoq de Boisbaudran was confirmed in 1880 by Marignac, who, when analyzing samarskite, managed to obtain two fractions containing new elements. Marignac designated the Y beta and Y alfa fractions. Later, the element present in the Y alfa fraction was named gadolinium, while the Y beta fraction had a spectrum similar to that of Lecoq de Boisbaudran's samarium. In 1900, Demarsay, who developed a new method of fractional crystallization, established that the companion of samarium is the element europium.
Fermium and Einsteinium (Fm), (Es)
In 1953, in the products of a thermonuclear explosion that the Americans carried out in 1952, isotopes of two new elements were discovered, which were named fermium and einsteinium - in honor of the physicists Enrico Fermi and Albert Einstein.
Curium (Cm)
The element was obtained in 1944 by a group of American physicists led by Glenn Seaborg by bombarding plutonium with helium nuclei. It was named after Pierre and Marie Curie. In the table of elements, curium is right below gadolinium - so scientists, when coming up with a name for a new element, may have had in mind that it was gadolinium that was the first element named after the scientist. In the element symbol (Cm), the first letter denotes the surname of Curie, the second - the name of Mary.
Mendelevium (Md)
It was first announced in 1955 by the Seaborg group, but it was not until 1958 that reliable data were obtained at Berkeley. Named after D.I. Mendeleev.
Nobelium (No)
For the first time, its receipt was reported in 1957 by an international group of scientists working in Stockholm, which proposed to name the element in honor of Alfred Nobel. Later, the results were found to be inaccurate. The first reliable data on element 102 were obtained in the USSR by the group of G.N. Flerova in 1966. Scientists proposed to rename the element in honor of the French physicist Frederic Joliot-Curie and call it Joliotium (Jl). As a compromise, there was also a proposal to name the element florovium - in honor of Flerov. The question remained open, and for several decades the Nobel symbol was placed in brackets. So it was, for example, in the 3rd volume of the Chemical Encyclopedia, published in 1992, which contained an article on nobelium. However, over time, the issue was resolved, and starting from the 4th volume of this encyclopedia (1995), as well as in other editions, the Nobel symbol was freed from brackets. In general, there have been heated debates over the issue of priority in the discovery of transuranium elements for many years. For element names from 102 to 109, the final decision was made on August 30, 1997. In accordance with this decision, the names of superheavy elements are given here.
Lawrencium (Lr)
The production of various isotopes of element 103 was reported in 1961 and 1971 (Berkeley), in 1965, 1967 and 1970 (Dubna). The element was named after Ernest Orlando Lawrence, an American physicist who invented the cyclotron. Lawrence is named after the Berkeley National Laboratory. For many years, the symbol Lr in our periodic tables was placed in brackets.
Rutherfordium (Rf)
The first experiments to obtain element 104 were undertaken in the USSR by Ivo Zvara and his collaborators back in the 60s. G.N. Flerov and his collaborators reported on the production of another isotope of this element. It was proposed to name it kurchatovium (symbol Ku) - in honor of the head of the atomic project in the USSR. I.V. Kurchatov. American researchers who synthesized this element in 1969 used a new identification technique, believing that the results obtained earlier could not be considered reliable. They proposed the name rutherfordium - in honor of the outstanding English physicist Ernest Rutherford, IUPAC proposed the name dubnium for this element. The International Commission concluded that the honor of discovery should be shared by both groups.
Seaborgium (Sg)
Element 106 was obtained in the USSR. G.N. Flerov with employees in 1974 and almost simultaneously in the USA. G. Seaborg with employees. In 1997, IUPAC approved the name seaborgium for this element, in honor of the patriarch of American nuclear researchers, Seaborg, who took part in the discovery of plutonium, americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium and who by that time was 85 years old. A photograph is known in which Seaborg stands near the table of elements and points with a smile at the symbol Sg.
Borium (Bh)
The first reliable information about the properties of element 107 was obtained in Germany in the 1980s. The element is named after Niels Bohr ( Bohr). Bh symbol.
Niels Bohr (1885-1962) - Danish physicist, one of the founders of modern physics. Founder and head of the Institute for Theoretical Physics in Copenhagen (Niels Bohr Institute); founder of the world scientific school; foreign member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1929). In 1943-45 he worked in the USA.
Niels Bohr created the theory of the atom, which was based on the planetary model of the atom, quantum concepts and Bohr's postulates proposed by him. Important works on the theory of metals, the theory of the atomic nucleus and nuclear reactions. Works on the philosophy of natural sciences. An active participant in the fight against the atomic threat. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1922.
§3. Elements named after mythological heroes
We assumed that the mythological names of the elements are an alternative to the names associated with the properties of the element. This is an unusual view of the properties of a particular compound. We have decided to place in this chapter, along with the general interpretation of the names, also the myth associated with the character after whom the element is named. All this will help expand your knowledge of mythology, as well as take a non-standard look at the elements and their properties.
Cadmium (Cd)
It was discovered in 1818 by the German chemist and pharmacist Friedrich Stromeyer in zinc carbonate, from which medicines were obtained at a pharmaceutical factory. The Greek word "cadmeia" from ancient times called carbonate zinc ores. The name goes back to the mythical Cadmus (Kadmos) - the hero of Greek mythology. It was as if Cadmus was the first to find a zinc mineral and revealed to people its ability to change the color of copper during the joint smelting of their ores (an alloy of copper and zinc is brass). The name Cadmus goes back to the Semitic "Ka-dem" - the East.
In Greek mythology, Cadmus is the son of Agenor, king of Canaan, and Telefassa, the founder of Thebes (in Boeotia). Sent by his father along with other brothers in search of Europe, Cadmus, accompanied by his mother Telefassa, sailed to Rhodes, where he dedicated a bronze cauldron to Athena and built the temple of Poseidon, leaving hereditary priests to look after him. Then they arrived on the island of Thera, where they also built a temple, after which they reached Thrace and were warmly welcomed by the local population. Here Telephassa died unexpectedly, and after the funeral, Cadmus and his companions went on foot to Delphi. There he turned to the oracle of Apollo and was instructed to stop searching and follow a cow with moon signs on its sides; where the cow collapses from fatigue, Cadmus must found a city. Leaving the sanctuary, Cadmus met the shepherds who served Pelagon, the king of Phocis, and they sold him a cow, on the sides of which there were signs of the full moon. He drove the animal east across Boeotia, never letting it rest until the exhausted cow fell. In order to sacrifice a cow to Athena, Cadmus sent companions for cleansing water to the source of Ares, not knowing that the source was guarded by a dragon. This dragon destroyed most of the satellites of Cadmus, for which Cadmus cut his head with a stone. Before he had time to sacrifice to Athena, she herself appeared and praised him for everything he had done, while ordering to sow half of the teeth of the snake he had killed (Athena handed the other half of the teeth to the Colchis king Eeta, who then gave them to Jason). When Cadmus fulfilled everything, armed people (Sparti, or “sowed people”) jumped out of the ground and began to rattle their weapons. He threw a stone into their ranks, which caused a quarrel: each began to accuse the other that it was he who threw the stone. They fought so fiercely that in the end only five survived: Echion, Udeus, Chthonius, Hyperenor and Pelor. All of them unanimously declared that they were ready to serve Cadmus, and subsequently became the founders of the most noble Theban families in the fortress of Cadmeus founded by Cadmus, around which Thebes grew. Since the slain dragon was the son of Ares, the god of war demanded retribution and Cadmus had to serve as his slave for eight years. After the end of this service, Athena made Cadmus the king of Cadmea (later renamed Thebes), and Zeus gave him Harmonia, the daughter of Ares and Aphrodite, as his wife. It was the first wedding of a mortal to be attended by the Olympian gods. Harmony bore Cadmus the son of Polydorus, whose grandson was Laius, and four daughters: Autonoe, Ino, Agave and Semele. In old age, Cadmus, together with Harmonia, moved to Illyria, where they turned into snakes and eventually ended up in Elysium (the country of the blessed, where heroes and the righteous go after death). Cadmus was credited with the invention of Greek writing (according to another version, the introduction of the Phoenician alphabet in Greece).
Cobalt (Co)
In the 15th century in Saxony, among the rich silver ores, white or gray crystals shining like steel were found, from which it was not possible to smelt the metal; their admixture with silver or copper ore interfered with the smelting of these metals. The “bad” ore was given the name of the mountain spirit Kobold by the miners. Most likely, these were cobalt minerals containing arsenic - cobaltite CoAsS, or cobalt sulfides skutterudite, safflower or smaltine. When they are fired, volatile poisonous arsenic oxide is released. Probably, the name of the evil spirit goes back to the Greek "kobalos" - smoke; it is formed during the roasting of ores containing arsenic sulfides. The same word the Greeks called deceitful people. In 1735, the Swedish mineralogist Georg Brand was able to isolate a previously unknown metal from this mineral, which he called cobalt. He also found out that the compounds of this particular element turn glass blue - this property was used even in ancient Assyria and Babylon.
Kobold - in the mythology of Northern Europe was the spirit of the mine. The description of appearance is similar to that of a gnome, however, unlike gnomes, kobolds did not engage in mountain crafts, but only lived in mines. Sometimes they are called Stukans, because it is believed that they are the ones who knock with their feet while running through the tunnels.
Usually kobolds are dressed like miners, have beards that are red like fire (sometimes literally luminous). Always carry a lamp with you. They can help a lost miner get out or, on the contrary, lead him into the darkest abandoned adit. They themselves never leave the mine, however they can communicate with rats and can sometimes send them to the surface.
They are afraid of the sun and, like most underground inhabitants, turn to stone with its first ray.
Nickel (Ni)
The origin of the name is similar to cobalt. Medieval miners called Nikel an evil mountain spirit that threw false minerals to the miners, and "Kupfernickel" ( Kupfernickel, copper devil) - fake copper. This ore outwardly resembled copper and was used in glassmaking to color glass in green. But no one managed to get copper from it - it was not there. This ore - copper-red crystals of nickeline (red nickel pyrite NiAs) was studied by the Swedish mineralogist Axel Kronstedt in 1751 and isolated a new metal from it, calling it nickel .. Nickel is a curse word in the language of miners. It was formed from the distorted Nicolaus - a generic word that had several meanings. But chiefly the word Nicolaus served to characterize two-faced people; in addition, it meant "a mischievous little spirit", "deceptive loafer", etc. In Russian literature of the early 19th century. the names nikolan (Scherer, 1808), nikolan (Zakharov, 1810), nicol and nickel (Dvigubsky, 1824) were used.
Niobium and tantalum (Nb), (Ta)
In 1801, the English chemist Charles Hatchet analyzed a black mineral stored in the British Museum and found back in 1635 in what is now Massachusetts, USA. Hatchet discovered an oxide of an unknown element in the mineral, which was named Columbia - in honor of the country where it was found (at that time the United States did not yet have a well-established name, and many called it Columbia after the discoverer of the continent). The mineral was called columbite. In 1802, the Swedish chemist Anders Ekeberg isolated another oxide from columbite, which stubbornly did not want to dissolve (as they said then, to be saturated) in any acid. The “legislator” in the chemistry of those times, the Swedish chemist Jene Jakob Berzelius, proposed calling the metal contained in this oxide tantalum. Tantalus - the hero of ancient Greek myths; as a punishment for his illegal actions, he stood up to his neck in the water, to which the branches with fruits leaned, but he could neither drink nor be satisfied. Similarly, tantalum could not be “satiated” with acid - it receded from it, like water from Tantalum. In terms of properties, this element was so similar to columbium that for a long time there were disputes about whether columbium and tantalum are the same or still different elements. It wasn't until 1845 that the German chemist Heinrich Rose resolved the dispute by analyzing several minerals, including columbite from Bavaria. He established that in fact there are two elements with similar properties. Hatchet's columbium turned out to be a mixture of them, and the formula of columbite (more precisely, manganocolumbite) is (Fe,Mn)(Nb,Ta) 2 O 6 . Rosé named the second element niobium, after Tantalus' daughter Niobe. However, until the middle of the 20th century, the symbol Cb remained in the American tables of chemical elements: there it stood in place of niobium. And the name of Hatchet is immortalized in the name of the mineral hatchit.
The following myth is associated with Niobe.
Both words (the god Thor and "thunder") are related to the Celtic taranis(irl. tarann) - thunder and god Taranis .
Titanium (Ti)
It is believed that this element was discovered by the German chemist Martin Klaproth. In 1795, he discovered an oxide of an unknown metal in the mineral rutile, which he called titanium. The Titans are the giants that the Olympian gods fought. Two years later, it turned out that the element "menakin", which was discovered in 1791 by the English chemist William Gregor in the mineral ilmenite (FeTiO 3), is identical to Klaproth's titanium.
In 1846, astronomers discovered a new planet predicted shortly before by the French astronomer Le Verrier. She was named Neptune - after the ancient Greek god of the underwater kingdom. When, in 1850, a new metal was discovered in a mineral brought to Europe from the United States, it was suggested to call it neptunium, under the impression of the discovery of astronomers. However, it soon became clear that it was niobium, which had already been discovered earlier. About "neptunium" was forgotten for almost a century, until a new element was discovered in the products of uranium irradiation with neutrons. And just as Neptune follows Uranus in the Solar System, so in the table of elements, neptunium (No. 93) appeared after uranium (No. 92).
In Roman mythology, Neptune is the god of the seas and streams, identified with the Greek Poseidon. Neptune's wife was Salacia, identified with Thetis and Amphitrite. The nymph Vinilia, who personified the waves of the surf, belonged to the circle of the sea god.
The ninth planet was discovered in 1930 solar system, predicted by the American astronomer Lovell. She was named Pluto - after the ancient Greek god of the underworld. Therefore, it was logical to call the next element after neptunium plutonium; it was obtained in 1940 as a result of the bombardment of uranium with nuclei of deuterium - heavy hydrogen (hydrogen-3 isotope)
In Greek mythology, Pluto is one of the names of the lord of the kingdom of the dead, Hades, meaning "rich."
§four. Elements named by their properties or properties of their compounds
If you understand what property of the element its name is associated with, how it is translated, which means, then you can better understand the material of the chemistry of elements, understand and learn the properties of each individual substance or element.
Fluorine (F)
For a long time, only derivatives of this element were known, including the extremely caustic hydrofluoric (hydrofluoric) acid, which dissolves even glass and leaves very severe, difficult-to-heal burns on the skin. The nature of this acid was established in 1810 by the French physicist and chemist A.M. Ampere; he proposed for the corresponding element (which was singled out much later, in 1886) the name: from the Greek. "Ftoros" - destruction, death.
Chlorine (Cl)
In Greek, "chloros" - yellow-green This is the color of this gas. The same root is in the word "chlorophyll" (from the Greek "chloros" and "phyllon" leaf). Initially, the element was named murine (muria - brine, salt water) by the name of its most common compound - sodium chloride, or table salt. But then, Davy, the scientist who first isolated chlorine, decided to rename the element based on the provisions of the nomenclature of the Paris Academy of Sciences, where it was preferable to name the elements based on their properties.
Bromine (Br)
In Greek, "bromos" means fetid. The suffocating smell of bromine is similar to the smell of chlorine.
Osmium (Os)
Osme is Greek for smell. Although the metal itself does not smell, the highly volatile osmium tetroxide OsO 4 has a rather unpleasant smell, similar to the smell of chlorine and garlic.
Iodine (I)
In Greek, iodes means purple. Vapors of this element have this color, as well as its solutions in non-solvating solvents (alkanes, carbon tetrachloride, etc.)
Chrome (Cr)
In Greek "chroma" - coloring, color. Many chromium compounds are brightly colored: oxides are green, black and red, hydrated Cr(III) salts are green and violet, and chromates and dichromates are yellow and orange.
Iridium (Ir)
The element is named essentially the same as chrome; in Greek "iris" ("iridos") - a rainbow, Irida - the goddess of the rainbow, the messenger of the gods. Indeed, crystalline IrCl is copper red, IrCl 2 is dark green, IrCl 3 is olive green, IrCl 4 is brown, IrF 6 is yellow, IrS, Ir 2 O 3 and IrBr 4 are blue, IrO 2 is black. The word "irization" is of the same origin - iridescent coloring of the surface of some minerals, the edges of clouds, as well as "iris" (plant), "iris diaphragm" and even "iritis" - inflammation of the iris.
Rhodium (Rh)
The element was discovered in 1803 by the English chemist W.G. Wollaston. He dissolved native South American platinum in aqua regia; after neutralizing the excess acid with caustic soda and separating platinum and palladium, he was left with a pink-red solution, sodium hexachlorodate Na 3 RhCl 6 , from which the new metal was isolated. Its name is derived from the Greek words "rhodon" - rose and "rodeos" - pink-red.
Praseodymium and neodymium (Pr), (Nd)
In 1841, K. Mosander divided the "lanthanum earth" into two new "earths" (that is, oxides). One of them was lanthanum oxide, the other was very similar to it and received the name "didymium" - from the Greek. Didymos is a twin. In 1882, K. Auer von Welsbach managed to separate the components and didymium. It turned out that this is a mixture of oxides of two new elements. One of them gave green salts, and Auer called this element praseodymium, that is, the “green twin” (from the Greek “prazidos” - light green). The second element gave pink-red salts, it was called neodymium, that is, the "new twin".
Thallium (Tl)
The English physicist and chemist William Crookes, a specialist in the field of spectral analysis, studying waste products from sulfuric acid production, wrote on March 7, 1861 in a laboratory journal: “The green line in the spectrum, given by some portions of selenium residues, is not due to either sulfur, selenium, tellurium; nor calcium, barium, strontium; not potassium, sodium, lithium. Indeed, it was a line of a new element, the name of which is derived from the Greek thallos- green branch. Crookes approached the choice of the name romantically: "I chose this name because the green line corresponds to the spectrum and echoes the specific brightness of the fresh color of plants at the present time."
Indium (In)
In 1863, F. Reich, director of the Metallurgical Laboratory of the Freiberg Mining Academy, and his assistant, T. Richter, reported on the discovery of a new metal in the German Journal of Practical Chemistry. Analyzing local polymetallic ores in search of the recently discovered thallium, the authors "noted a hitherto unknown indigo-blue line." And then they write: "We obtained such a bright, sharp and stable blue line in the spectroscope that we did not hesitate to conclude the existence of an unknown metal, which we propose to call indium." Salt concentrates of the new element were detected even without a spectroscope - by the intense blue coloration of the burner flame. This color was very similar to the color of indigo dye, hence the name of the element.
Rubidium and cesium (Rb), (Cs)
These are the first chemical elements discovered in the early 60s of the 18th century by G. Kirchhoff and R. Bunsen using the method they developed - spectral analysis. Cesium is named for the bright blue line in the spectrum (lat. caesius - blue), rubidium - for the lines in the red part of the spectrum (lat. rubidus- red). To obtain several grams of salts of new alkali metals, the researchers processed 44 tons of mineral water from Durkheim and over 180 kg of the mineral lepidolite - aluminosilicate composition K (Li, Al) 3 (Si, Al) 4 O 10 (F, OH) 2, in which rubidium and cesium oxides are present as impurities.
Hydrogen and oxygen (H), (O)
These names are a literal translation into Russian from Latin ( hydrogenium, oxygenium). They were invented by A.L. Lavoisier, who mistakenly believed that oxygen "gives birth" to all acids. It would be more logical to do the opposite: call oxygen hydrogen (this element also “gives birth” to water), and hydrogen oxygen, since it is part of all acids.
Nitrogen (N)
The French name for the element (azote) was also proposed by Lavoisier - from the Greek negative prefix "a" and the word "zoe" - life (the same root in the word "zoology" and its derivatives - zoo, zoogeography, zoomorphism, zooplankton, livestock specialist, etc. .). The name is not entirely appropriate: nitrogen, although not suitable for breathing, is absolutely necessary for life, since it is part of any protein, any nucleic acid. Same origin and German name stickstoff- suffocating substance. The root "azo" is present in the international names "azide", "azo compound", "azine" and others. Here is the Latin nitrogenium and English nitrogen come from the Hebrew "neter" (Greek "nitron", lat. nitrum); so in ancient times they called natural alkali - soda, and later - saltpeter.
Radium and radon (Ra), (Rn)
Names common to all languages come from Latin words radius- beam and radiare- emit rays. So the Curies, who discovered radium, designated its ability to emit invisible particles. The words “radio”, “radiation” and their countless derivatives are of the same origin (more than a hundred such words can be found in dictionaries, ranging from obsolete radiola to modern radioecology). During the decay of radium, a radioactive gas is released, which is called the emanation of radium (from lat. emanatio- expiration), and then radon - by analogy with the names of a number of other noble gases (or perhaps simply by the initial and final letters of the English name proposed by E. Rutherford radiation emanation).
Actinium and protactinium (Ac), (Pc)
The name of these radioactive elements is given by analogy with radium: in Greek "actis" - radiation, light. Although protactinium was discovered in 1917, that is, 18 years later than actinium, in the so-called natural radioactive series of actinium (which begins with uranium-235), protactinium is earlier; hence its name: from the Greek "protos" - the first, initial, initial.
Astatine (At)
This element was obtained artificially in 1940 by irradiating bismuth with alpha particles at the cyclotron. But only seven years later, the authors of the discovery - American physicists D. Corson, C. Mackenzie and E. Segre gave this element a name derived from the Greek word "astatos" - unstable, shaky (the word "statics" and many of its derivatives are of the same root) . The longest-lived isotope of an element has a half-life of 7.2 hours, which seemed very short then.
Argon (Ar)
The noble gas isolated in 1894 from the air by the English scientists J.W. Rayleigh and W. Ramsay, did not react with any substance, for which he got his name - from the Greek negative prefix "a" and the word "ergon" - business, activity. From this root - both the non-systemic unit of energy erg, and the words "energy", "energetic", etc. gas. In 1904, the chemist Ramsay received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of argon and other noble gases in an atmosphere, and the physicist John William Strutt (Lord Rayleigh) received the Nobel Prize in Physics in the same year and, in fact, for the same discovery. This is probably the only case of its kind. While argon confirms its name, not a single of its stable compounds has been obtained, except for inclusion compounds with phenol, hydroquinone, and acetone.
Platinum (Pt)
When the Spaniards in America in the middle of the 16th century became acquainted with a new metal for themselves, very similar to silver (in Spanish plata), they gave it the somewhat derogatory name platinum, literally "little silver", "silver". This is explained by the refractoriness of platinum (about 1770 ° C), which was not amenable to remelting.
Molybdenum (Mo)
Molybdos is Greek for lead, hence the Latin molibdaena- so in the Middle Ages they called both the lead shine PbS, and the rarer molybdenum shine (MoS 2), and other similar minerals that left a black mark on paper, including graphite and lead itself (not without reason in German pencil - Bleistift, that is, a lead rod). At the end of the 18th century, a new metal was isolated from molybdenum luster (molybdenite); at the suggestion of Y.Ya. Berzelius named it molybdenum.
Tungsten (W)
A mineral with this name has long been known in Germany. This is a mixed iron-manganese tungstate x FeWO 4 y MnWO 4 . Due to its gravity, it was often mistaken for tin ore, from which, however, no metals were smelted. The suspicious attitude of miners to this yet another “devilish” ore (think of nickel and cobalt) was reflected in its name: wolf German for wolf. What is "ram"? There is such a version: in Old German Ramm- ram; it turns out that the evil spirit "devours" the metal, like a wolf of a ram. But something else can be assumed: in the southern German, Swiss and Austrian dialects of the German language, there is still a verb rahm(read “ram”), which means “skim the cream”, “take the best part for yourself”. Then, instead of “wolves - sheep”, another version is obtained: the “wolf” takes the best part for itself and nothing remains for the miners. The word "tungsten" is in German and Russian, while in English and French only the sign W in the formulas and the name of the mineral wolframite remained from it; in other cases - only "tungsten". So once Berzelius called a heavy mineral, from which K.V. Scheele isolated tungsten oxide in 1781. Swedish tung sten- a heavy stone, hence the name of the metal. By the way, later this mineral (CaWO 4) was named scheelite in honor of the scientist.
Zinc (Zn)
Zinc metal was named by M. Lomonosov from the German Zink. Possibly, this word comes from the ancient Germanic tinka- white, because the most common zinc compound is ZnO oxide (“philosophical wool” of alchemists - perhaps such a strange characteristic is associated with appearance of this oxide) is white. Perhaps this word comes from the German zinke (“tooth-like”, “sharpened at the end” (“tooth” in German - zahn), because in its natural form, in crystals, zinc oxide really looks like metal needles. In Persian, seng means "stone" - this word can also be considered a possible ancestor of modern zinc.
Phosphorus (P)
When in 1669 the Hamburg alchemist Henning Brand discovered the white modification of phosphorus, he was amazed by its glow in the dark (in fact, it is not phosphorus that glows, but its vapors when they are oxidized by atmospheric oxygen). The new substance was named, which in Greek means "carrying light." So "traffic light" is linguistically the same as "phosphorus". By the way, the Greeks called Phosphoros the morning Venus, which foreshadowed the sunrise.
Arsenic (As)
The Russian name is most likely associated with the poison that poisoned mice, among other things, gray arsenic resembles a mouse in color. latin arsenicum goes back to the Greek "arsenikos" - male, probably due to the strong action of the compounds of this element. And why they were used, thanks to fiction, everyone knows.
Antimony (Sb)
In chemistry, this element has three names. The Russian word "antimony" comes from the Turkish "syurme" - rubbing or blackening of eyebrows in ancient times, thinly ground black antimony sulfide Sb 2 S 3 served for this purpose ("You fast, do not antimony eyebrows." - M. Tsvetaeva). Latin name of the element ( stibium) comes from the Greek "stibi" - a cosmetic product for eyeliner and the treatment of eye diseases. Salts of antimony acid are called antimonites, the name is possibly associated with the Greek "antemon" - a flower of intergrowths of needle-like crystals of antimony shine Sb 2 S 2 look like flowers.
Bismuth (Bi)
This is probably a distorted German " Weiss Masse"- white mass since ancient times, bismuth nuggets, white with a reddish tinge, have been known. By the way, in Western European languages (except German), the name of the element begins with "b" ( bismuth). Replacing the Latin "b" with the Russian "v" is a common occurrence Abel- Abel, Basil- Basil, basilisk- basilisk, Barbara- Barbara, barbarism- barbarism, Benjamin- Benjamin, Bartholomew- Bartholomew, Babylon- Babylon, Byzantium- Byzantium, lebanon- Lebanon, Libya- Libya, Baal- Vaal, alphabet- alphabet ... Perhaps the translators believed that the Greek "beta" is the Russian "v".
Lithium (Li)
When in 1817 the student of Berzelius, the Swedish chemist I.A. Arfvedson discovered in one of the minerals a new "flammable alkali of a still unknown nature", his teacher suggested calling it "lithion" - from the Greek "lithos" - a stone, since this alkali, unlike the already known sodium and potassium, was first found in the "kingdom" of stones. The name “lithium” was assigned to the element. The same Greek root is in the words "lithosphere", "lithography" (an impression from a stone mold) and others.
Sodium (Na)
In the 18th century, the name "natron" was assigned to "mineral alkali" - caustic soda. Now in chemistry, "soda lime" is a mixture of sodium and calcium hydroxides. So sodium and nitrogen - two completely dissimilar elements - seem to have something in common (based on the Latin names nitrogenium and sodium) origin. English and French element names ( sodium) probably originated from the Arabic "suvvad" - this is how the Arabs called the coastal marine plant, the ash of which, unlike most other plants, contains not potassium carbonate, but sodium, that is, soda.
Potassium (K)
In Arabic, "al-kali" is a product obtained from the ashes of plants, that is, potassium carbonate. Until now, rural residents use this ash to feed plants with potassium; for example, in sunflower ash, potassium is more than 30%. English element name potassium, like the Russian "potash", is borrowed from the languages of the Germanic group; in German and Dutch Ash- ash, pot- a pot, that is, potash is "ash from a pot". Previously, potassium carbonate was obtained by evaporating the extract from the ash in vats.
Calcium (Ca)
Romans word calx(genus case calcis) called all soft stones. Over time, this name was assigned only to limestone (no wonder chalk in English - chalk). The same word was used for lime, a product of roasting calcium carbonate. Alchemists called calcination the process of roasting itself. Hence soda ash - anhydrous sodium carbonate, obtained by calcining crystalline carbonate Na 2 CO 3 10H 2 O. Calcium was first obtained from lime in 1808 by G. Davy, who also gave the name to the new element. Calcium is a relative of the calculator: among the Romans calculus(short for calx) - small pebble, pebble. Such pebbles were used for simple calculations using a slotted board - an abacus, the ancestor of Russian abacus. All these words have left their mark in European languages. Yes, in English calx- scale, ash, and lime; calcimine- lime mortar for whitewashing; calcination- calcination, roasting; calculus- stone in the kidneys, bladder, as well as calculus (differential and integral) in higher mathematics; calculate- calculate, count. In modern Italian, which is closest to Latin, calcolo is both calculation and stone.
Barium (Ba)
In 1774, Swedish chemists K.V. Scheele and Yu.G. Gan isolated from the heavy spar mineral (BaSO 4) a new "earth", which was called barite; in Greek "baros" - heaviness, "baris" - heavy. When a new metal was isolated from this "earth" (BaO) by electrolysis in 1808, it was named barium. So barium also has unexpected and practically unrelated "relatives"; among them - a barometer, a barograph, a pressure chamber, a baritone - a low ("heavy") voice, baryons - heavy elementary particles.
Bor (B)
The Arabs used the word "burak" to refer to many white salts that are soluble in water. One of these salts is borax, natural sodium tetraborate Na 2 B 4 O 7 10H 2 O. Boric acid was obtained from borax in 1702 by calcination, and from it in 1808 L. Gay-Lussac and L. Tenar independently a new element, boron, was isolated from a friend.
Aluminum (Al)
It was discovered by the physicist and chemist X.K. Oersted in 1825. The name comes from the Latin alumen(genus case aluminis) - the so-called alum (double potassium-aluminum sulfate KAl (SO 4) 2 12H 2 O), they were used as a mordant when dyeing fabrics. The Latin name probably goes back to the Greek "halme" - brine, brine.
Lanthanum (La)
In 1794, the Finnish chemist Yu. Gadolin discovered a new "yttrium earth" in the mineral cerite. Nine years later, in the same mineral, J. Berzelius and W. Hisinger found another "earth", which they called cerium. From these "earths" oxides of a number of rare earth elements were subsequently isolated. One of them, discovered in 1839, at the suggestion of Berzelius, was named lanthanum - from the Greek. "lanthanine" - hide: a new element has been "hiding" from chemists for decades.
Silicon (Si)
The Russian name of the element given to it by G.I. Hess in 1831, came from the Old Slavonic word "flint" - a hard stone. This is the origin of the Latin silica(and the international "silicate"): Silex- stone, cobblestone, as well as cliff, rock. The names are interconnected - after all, there are no soft rocks ...
Zirconium (Zr)
The name comes from the Persian "tsargun" - painted in golden color. This color is one of the varieties of the mineral zircon (ZrSiO 4) - the gemstone hyacinth. Zirconium dioxide ("zircon earth") was isolated from Ceylon zircon in 1789 by the German chemist M.G. Klaproth.
Technetium (Tc)
The name reflects the artificial production of this element: negligible amounts of technetium were synthesized in 1936 by irradiating molybdenum in a cyclotron with deuterium nuclei. In Greek "technetos" means "artificial"
Conclusion
This work and the materials used to create it can be used to prepare for exams, to consider the elements being studied from an unusual side, in comparison with the standard method, or to prepare for Olympiads, where it is necessary to show in-depth knowledge of the subject.
On the this moment there is no generally accepted division of elements according to etymology, so we offer our own. We divided the elements into 5 groups according to the subject of the name: toponyms; elements named after the researchers who discovered them; elements with mythological roots; elements named by their properties or by the way they are opened.
However, there were several elements, such as: Plutonium, Neptunium, Uranus, which were problematic to attribute to any particular group: on the one hand, these are the names of ancient gods, and it is logical to attribute them to elements associated with myths. But on the other hand, these are the names of the planets, and it makes sense to attribute them to toponymic elements.
As for each specific group, we made the following conclusions.
According to toponymic elements: these elements were named after geographical objects for several reasons: either this is the place of direct discovery of the element, or the scientist wanted to indicate the significance of this place for himself and for science. These names were more relevant earlier than today, due to the fact that the elements that are discovered in modern times do not exist in nature - they are synthesized in large nuclear research institutes.
By elements named after mythological heroes: the names of these elements conceal a reference to their properties. But why couldn't scientists just name the elements according to their properties, but decided to name some ancient heroes by name? We concluded that the scientists of the XVIII-XIX centuries. were very versatile and erudite people, interested in various fields of knowledge, not confining themselves to their specialization, which, unfortunately, is very common today.
For elements named after scientists: we noticed that there are not many elements named after scientists. Apparently in scientific society it is not customary to perpetuate oneself in the name of one's own discovery. In addition, only a few elements, such as mendelevium, were named after chemists. Most of these elements are named after physicists. And in general, in order to name an element in honor of the one who discovered it, some time must pass so that people can appreciate the discovery and only then perpetuate the researcher in the name of the element.
It is interesting that if earlier the scientist himself could come up with the name of the element or coordinate this issue with the relevant authorities, now, due to the complexity of the process of synthesizing new elements, entire institutions have the right to be called the authors of the discovery. Now there is a special organization - IUPAC (IUPAC (English) - International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) - which deals with the nomenclature of elements. Entire assemblies of scientists from different countries gather, where names for a new element are discussed, and in the end a decision is made. Of course, the priority in the name of the element is given to the country of origin.
According to the elements whose names are associated with their properties: it is possible to give such names to elements already by external signs and after the first reactions with the corresponding substance. Now such names are not given to elements due to the impossibility of studying the physical or chemical properties of elements, because. they are synthesized in the amount of several atoms in special institutes for nuclear research.
Bibliography
1. I.V. Petryanov-Sokolov "Popular Library of Chemical Elements" in 2 parts (Moscow, Nauka, 1983)
2. J. Emsley "Elements" (Moscow, Mir, 1993)
3. Kondrashov A.P. “Who is who in classical mythology” (Moscow, Ripol classic, 2002)
4. Leenson I.A. "Where does your name come from?" article in the periodical "Chemistry and Life", (Moscow, No. 3 (2004))
5. N.A. Figurovsky "Discovery of the elements and the origin of their names" (Moscow, Nauka, 1970)
