Geoinformation technologies and their use. Geographic information systems in Russia
Geo information Technology. Displaying information on an electronic map.
Geoinformation s-we;
S-we of federal and municipal government;
We are designing
We are for military purposes
The graphic image consists of a substrate (background) and the objects themselves
The problem of implementation is the difficulty of formalizing the description of the subject area and displaying it on an electronic map.
The main class of geographic information systems (GIS) data is coordinate data, containing geometric information and reflecting the spatial aspect. Basic types of coordinate data: point (nodes, vertices); line (open); contour (closed line); polygon (area, region). Relationship types:
Building complex elements from simple objects
Calculated from object coordinates
Determined using special descriptions and semantics of the input data
The graphic environment is based on vector and raster models. Vector – vectors require less memory.
Raster models are cellular, each cell has a corresponding color and density.
Raster models are divided into regular, irregular and nested (recursive or hierarchical) mosaics. There are three types of flat regular tilings: square, triangle and hexagon.
Question No. 13
Basic information technologies: information security technologies
In connection with the introduction of IT, the need to protect information has arisen.
Types of information threats:
Failures and malfunctions of technical equipment
Deliberate threats from attackers
The main causes of failures and failures of equipment:
Aging and wear
Incorrect use of resources
Troubleshooting:
Redundancy of computer resources
Protection against incorrect use of resources
Identification and timely elimination of errors
Page redundancy - redundancy of hardware components and machine media.
Information redundancy – periodic or continuous backup of data on primary and backup media
Functional redundancy - duplication of functions and the introduction of additional functions into software resources.
Deliberate threats:
With constant human participation
Malicious programs that work without human intervention
Threat Protection:
Prohibition of unauthorized access
Impossibility of unauthorized use of resources
Detection of unauthorized access
The main method of protection against unauthorized access:
Identification
Authentication
Definition of authority
Passwords: simple - constant, complex - dynamically changing:
Modification simple passwords, one-time passwords
Request-response method selecting a password from an array list
Functional methods
Programs;
External memory(files, directories, logical drives);
RAM;
CPU usage time (priority);
I/O ports;
External devices.
There are the following types of user rights to access resources:
Universal (full provision of the resource);
Functional or partial;
Temporary.
The most common methods of access control are:
Separation by lists (users or resources);
Using the authority establishment matrix (rows - identifiers, columns - computer system resources);
Question No. 14
Basic information technologies: CASE technologies. Objectives of the OMG consortium and the OMA specification. The ideal object-oriented CASE tool. Criteria for evaluating and selecting CASE tools.
Functional and modular The approach is based on the principle of algorithmic decomposition with the selection of functional elements and the establishment of a strict order of actions performed. “-” unidirectionality of information flow, insufficient Feedback
Object-oriented The approach is based on object decomposition with a description of the behavior of the system in terms of the interaction of objects.
Under CASE technology We will understand the complex of software tools that support the processes of creating and maintaining software, including analysis and formulation of requirements, design, code generation, testing, documentation, quality assurance, configuration management and project management.
Due to the two approaches to software design, there are CASE technologies focused on the structural approach, the object-oriented approach, and combined ones. OOP has become widespread. Reasons for this:
Possibility of assembly software system from ready-made components,
The ability to accumulate design solutions in the form of libraries
Ease of making changes to projects due to encapsulation
Quickly adapt applications to changing conditions
The ability to organize parallel work of analysts, designers and programmers.
The concepts of object-oriented approach and distributed computing became the basis for the creation of the Object Management Group (OMG) consortium. The main activity of the consortium is the development of specifications and standards for creating distributed object systems in heterogeneous environments. The basis was a specification called Object Management Architecture (OMA).
OMA consists of four main components that represent specifications for different levels of application support.
The Object Request Broker Architecture (CORBA) defines the mechanisms for interaction between objects in a heterogeneous network;
Object services are the core system services used by developers to create applications;
Universal means are high-level system services aimed at supporting user applications ( Email, printing media, etc.);
Application objects are designed to solve specific application problems.
The concept of an ideal object-oriented CASE tool.
The authors of the most common object-oriented methods are G. Butch, D. Rambo, I. Jacobson (UML).
The classical formulation of the problem of developing a software system (engineering) is a spiral cycle of iterative alternation of stages of OO analysis, design and implementation.
Question No. 15
"Basic information technologies: telecommunication technologies."
architecture
Computer architecture Networks
1. peer-to-peer
2. client-server
3. client-server for Web technologies
1. terminal – for display and input
MainFrame - all calculations and data
2. Local, corporate, global networks connecting client PCs that use resources and servers that provide resources.
Presentation component – interface;
Application component – responsible for executing functions;
Data access component (resource manager) – responsible for defining and managing data;
1.Access to deleted data
"-"low performance
2. Data management server
“+”Part of the data is transmitted
Application functions are unified
“-” Lack of a clear distinction between the presentation component and the application component.
3. Complex server
«+» High performance
Centralized administration
Saving resources
4. Thin client
“+”Organization of different application components for different tasks, without reconfiguring the server and client.
Question No. 16
“Basic information technologies: artificial intelligence technologies.”
A system is called intelligent if it implements the following basic functions:
Accumulate knowledge about the world surrounding the system, classify and evaluate it from the point of view of pragmatic usefulness and consistency, initiate processes for obtaining
new knowledge, correlate new knowledge with previously stored knowledge;
Replenish acquired knowledge with the help of logical inference, reflecting patterns in the world surrounding the system or in the knowledge previously accumulated by it, obtain generalized knowledge based on more specific knowledge and logically plan one’s activities;
Communicate with a person in a language as close as possible to natural human language, and receive information from channels similar to those that a person uses when perceiving the world around him, be able to formulate for himself or at the request of a person (user) an explanation of his own activities, provide assistance to the user at the expense of that knowledge that is stored in memory, and those logical means of reasoning that are inherent in the system.
Knowledge base - a set of environments that store knowledge of various types. Fact base– stores specific data. Rule base– elementary expressions. Procedure database– application programs performing transformations and calculations. Patterns database– information related to the characteristics of the environment in which the system operates. Meta-knowledge base – knowledge base about yourself. Goals database– scenarios to achieve goals that came from the user or the system itself. Planning block– decision planning.
Intelligent information retrieval systems – interaction with problem-oriented databases in natural language.
Expert systems– a computing system that uses expert knowledge and logical inference procedures to solve problems.
Calculation and logical systems - allow you to solve management and design problems according to their formulation and initial data.
Hybrid systems
Knowledge representation models:
Semantic networks – graph, vertices - concepts, arcs - relationships between concepts.
Question No. 17
“Information technologies for organizational management (Corporate information technologies).”
Management and IT methods:
1. Resources - DBMS
2. Processes - Workflow
3. Corporate knowledge (communications) - Intranet
1) MRP is a methodology for planning the material resources of an enterprise, used in conjunction with MPS - a methodology for volume scheduling. CRP is a methodology for planning production resources (capacity).
MRP2 is an integrated methodology for planning and managing all production resources of an enterprise MRP/CRP and using MPS b FRP - financial resource planning.
ERP – integrated planning of all business resources of an enterprise. For trade, services, finance.
CSRP – consumption synchronized resource planning.
Because production involves many suppliers and buyers - a new concept of supply chains - taking into account when analyzing the activities of the entire chain of transformation of goods from raw materials into a finished product. Further development of supply chains - virtual business - a distributed system of several companies and covering the full life cycle of a product or the division of one company into several virtual businesses.
3) Etranet - corporate communications. 3 levels of implementation of telecommunication technologies: hardware, software and information. It differs from the Internet only in information. 3 levels of this aspect: 1. A universal language for representing corporate knowledge - does not depend on the subject area. and defines grammar and syntax. Graphic description of data models. Objectives: unification of knowledge representation, unambiguous interpretation of knowledge, division of knowledge processing processes into simple procedures. 2. Models of representations – determine the specifics of the organization’s activities. Describe the primary data. 3. Factual knowledge – specific subject area. and are primary data.
Architecture.
1. Centralized architecture on mainframes, where data storage and processing is carried out. “+” ease of administration, information protection.
2. Client – server.
The server contains data, not information.
For data exchange – closed protocol
On clients, data is interpreted and converted into information
Fragments of application systems are hosted on clients
“+” low network load, high reliability, flexible adjustment of the level of user rights, support for large fields.
“-” difficulty of administration (territorial disunity), insufficient degree of information protection from unauthorized actions, closed protocol (specific to a given IS).
Intranet architecture is a combination of the previous ones. All information and processes are on the central computer. At workplaces there are the simplest access devices that provide the ability to control processes in the IS.
“+” information on the server, an open protocol, application programs on the server, centralized server management and work is facilitated.
Question No. 18
"Information technologies in industry and economics"
When designing automated control systems, the issue of compatibility and standardization was often ignored, which made it difficult to implement modern technologies and led to high costs for modernization. Corporate information systems (CIS), based on the principles of corporate information technologies and modern standards, have become widespread.
Formation of reporting indicators (tax services, statistics, investors, etc.) obtained on the basis of standard accounting and statistical reporting;
Development of strategic management decisions on business development based on a base of highly aggregated indicators;
Development of tactical decisions aimed at operational management and decided on the basis of a base of private, highly detailed indicators, reflecting various aspects of the local characteristics of the functioning of the structure.
Main difficulties in diagnosis:
Survey, system analysis and assessment of the existing management structure and technologies
Development of new options for organizational structures and IT-based management technologies
Development of regulations for management reorganization, implementation plan, regulations for management document flow.
CIS: - replicable - does not require modification for small businesses.
Custom - unreliable, production with very high specificity
Semi-custom – flexible, large enterprises
APCS principles:
Compatibility of software and hardware from different manufacturers
Comprehensive testing and debugging of the entire system at the integrator’s stand based on customer specifications. Technical languages of ladder diagrams.
The lower level of the automated process control system is controllers that provide primary information processing. Top level– powerful computers that perform the functions of database servers and workstations that provide storage, analysis, processing and interaction with the operator. Software – SCADA.
Concepts open systems OMAC
Open architecture providing integration of hardware and software
Modular architecture
Scalability, configuration changes for specific tasks
Economical
Easy to maintain architecture
Question No. 19
"Information technologies in education"
In the process of informatization of education, it is necessary to highlight the following aspects:
Methodological. Here main problem is to develop the basic principles of the educational process that correspond to the modern level of information technology.
Economic. The economic basis of the information society is the branches of the information industry. There is an intensive process of formation of the world “information economy”, which consists in the globalization of information, information technology and telecommunications markets.
Technical. Currently, a fairly large number of software and technical developments have been created and implemented that implement individual IT. But at the same time, different methodological approaches are used, incompatible technical and software, which makes replication difficult.
Technological. The technological basis of the information society is telecommunications and information technologies, which have become leaders of technological progress; an integral element of any modern technologies, they generate economic growth, create conditions for the free circulation of large amounts of information and knowledge in society, lead to significant socio-economic transformations and, ultimately account, towards the formation of the information society.
Methodological aspect. The main advantages of modern information technologies (visibility, the ability to use combined forms of information presentation - data, stereo sound, graphic image, animation, processing and storage of large volumes of information, access to global information resources) should become the basis for supporting the educational process.
Main factors influencing efficiency of use information resources in the educational process:
1. Information overload is a reality. An excess of data causes a decline in the quality of thinking, especially among educated members modern society;
2. The introduction of modern information technologies is advisable if it allows creating additional opportunities in the following areas:
Access to a large amount of educational information;
A figurative visual form of presenting the material being studied;
Support for active learning methods;
Possibility of nested modular presentation of information.
3. Fulfillment of the following didactic requirements:
The appropriateness of presenting educational material;
Sufficiency, clarity, completeness, modernity and structure of educational material;
Multi-layered presentation of educational material by level of complexity;
Timeliness and completeness test questions and tests;
Logging actions during work;
Interactivity, the ability to select the mode of working with educational material;
The presence in each subject of a basic, invariant and variable part that can be adjusted.
4. Computer support for each subject studied, and this process cannot be replaced by studying a single computer science course.
Question No. 20
"Information technologies for computer-aided design."
The creation of CAD products occurs in the following areas:
A universal graphics package for flat drawing, volumetric modeling and photorealistic visualization;
Open graphical environment for creating applications
Graphics editor and graphical application environment
Open design environment;
CAD for non-professionals ( home use)
The most complete capabilities of a CAD product at the level of a universal graphics package can be seen using the example of AutoCAD 2000. Features:
Ability to work with multiple drawing files in one session without loss of performance;
Context pop-up menu including a group of buffer operations
Availability of modeling tools that allow you to edit solid objects at the level of edges and faces;
Ability to access object properties;
Ability to select, group and filter objects by types and properties;
Availability of technology for creating and editing blocks;
Ability to insert hyperlinks into a drawing;
Enabling the new interface drag-and-drop technologies for working with blocks, external links, image and drawing files;
Control the thickness (weight) of lines directly with reproduction on the screen;
Ability to work with layers without printing;
Visual work with sizes and dimensional styles;
Availability of controls for views and coordinate systems;
Availability of several visualization modes from wire frame to painting;
Availability of means to ensure accuracy of input when creating and editing;
Possibility of layout of drawings and printing; working with external databases;
The most promising in the field of automated testing is the use of open environments, the main value of which is automation of the design process: selection of the structure of the design object; necessary calculations, including geometric ones, etc. An example of the implementation of this approach is SPRUT technology, implemented in the form of a graphical shell with a changeable problem orientation DiaCad.
However DiaCad is only an integral part of the SPRUT technology and is used in cases where it is possible to formalize the design process in a given subject environment. Where this is not possible, interactive drawing tools are used, just like in well-known graphic editing tools.
Question No. 21
“Systematic approach to building information systems”
IC design approaches:
Cascade
Spiral – Continuous IP Development
System
A system is a collection of objects whose properties are determined by the relationship between objects. Each object is like a system. The functions of an object are determined by its internal structure. The functions of the system are manifested in the process of its interaction with the external environment. Technical systems are created for a specific purpose. The goal is subjective due to the developer, but is based on the objective needs of the company. IT as a system. The emergence of a problem gives rise to a future system.
A system is a finite set of functional elements and relationships between them, which are isolated from the environment in accordance with the set goal within a certain time interval for its implementation.
The systems approach is implemented by studying the function or structure of the system.
Structural approach - the structure reflects the relationships between the elements of the system, taking into account their interaction in space and time. Serves to study the existing system.
Functional approach - displays the functions of the system, implemented in accordance with the goal set for it.
The structure of the system is described in:
Conceptual level – allows you to qualitatively determine the main subsystems, elements and connections between them.
Logical level – formation of a model that describes the structure of individual subsystems and the interaction between them.
Physical layer – implementation of the structure on known hardware and software.
Principles of the systems approach:
1. The presence of a formulated single goal for IT within the framework of the system being developed.
2. Coordination of IT inputs and outputs with the environment
3. Typification of IT structures
4. standardization and interconnection of IT tools
5. Openness of IT as a system
The basic principles and patterns of design are determined by systems engineering.
Systems engineering is a branch of cybernetics that studies issues of planning, design, construction and behavior of complex information systems, the basis of which are computers.
Design can be thought of as a cycle, each iteration of which is more detailed and less general.
Analysis->Synthesis->Evaluation->Analysis...
Design properties:
Divergence is the expansion of the boundaries of the project situation in order to provide a larger space for searching for a solution.
Transformation – the stage of creating principles and concepts
Convergence – covers traditional design (programming, debugging, detailing)
Question No. 22
“Analysis and formation of a conceptual model of the subject area.”
All information describing a specific subject area must be abstracted and formalized in a certain way.
The main directions of formalizing information about the subject area are:
Classification theory based on taxonomic and meronomic description of information. Taxonomic description is based on the ideology of sets, and meronomic description is carried out through a strictly formalized definition of classes;
A measurement theory that offers a basis for qualitative and quantitative measurements through classification and ordinal scales;
Semiotics, which studies sign systems from the point of view of syntactics, semantics and pragmatics.
Subject area- the real world, which should be reflected in the information base.
Data- the result of monitoring the state of the subject area.
Data- a type of information characterized by a high degree of formatting, in contrast to the freer structures characteristic of speech, text and visual information
Information base(database) - a collection of data intended for joint use.
Knowledge- the result of a person’s theoretical and practical activity, reflecting the accumulation of previous experience And characterized by a high degree of structuring.
Knowledge can be divided into three main components:
Declarative, representing a general description of an object, which does not allow their use without prior structuring in a specific subject area;
Conceptual (systemic) knowledge, containing, in addition to the first part, the relationships between concepts and the properties of concepts;
Procedural (algorithmic) knowledge that allows you to obtain a solution algorithm.
Item- any material thing, an object of knowledge.
Property- that which is inherent in objects, what distinguishes them from other objects or makes them similar to other objects. Properties are manifested in the process of interaction of objects.
Sign- everything in which objects, phenomena are similar to each other or in which they differ from each other; indicator, side of an object or phenomenon by which one can recognize, define or describe the object or phenomenon.
Attribute- an integral, essential, necessary property, sign of an object or phenomenon, without which they cannot exist.
Thus, the current state of information technology requires a transition from information description subject area to presentation at the data level, carried out on the basis of decomposition, abstraction, aggregation.
Decomposition- this is the division of a system (program, task) into components, the combination of which makes it possible to solve a given problem.
Abstraction allows you to correctly select the necessary components for decomposition.
Aggregation- the process of combining objects into a certain group, not necessarily for the purpose of classification. Aggregation is done for a purpose.
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………...3
1. Geoinformation technologies and systems…..……..…………………..4
2. Structure and functions of GIS……………………………………………...7
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………...9
List of sources used………………………………………………………...10
INTRODUCTION
The emergence of geographic information systems dates back to the early 60s of the 20th century. It was then that the prerequisites and conditions appeared for informatization and computerization of areas of activity related to modeling geographic space and solving spatial problems. Their development is associated with research carried out by universities, academic institutions, defense departments and mapping services.
For the first time, the term “geographic information system” appeared in English literature and was used in two versions, such as geographic information system and geographic information system, very soon it also received the abbreviated name GIS. A little later, this term penetrated into the Russian scientific lexicon, where it exists in two equivalent forms: the original full form in the form of a “geographic information system” and a reduced form in the form of a “geographic information system”. The first of them very soon became official, and a completely reasonable desire for brevity in speech and texts reduced the last of them to the abbreviation “GIS”.
Geographic information systems and technologies
A geographic information system (GIS) is a multifunctional information system designed for collecting, processing, modeling and analyzing spatial data, displaying it and using it in solving calculation problems, preparing and making decisions. The main purpose of GIS is to generate knowledge about the Earth, individual territories, terrain, as well as timely delivery of necessary and sufficient spatial data to users in order to achieve the greatest efficiency of their work.
Geographic information technologies (GIT) are information technologies for processing geographically organized information.
The main feature of GIS, which determines its advantages in comparison with other AIS, is the presence of a geoinformation basis, i.e. digital maps (DC), providing the necessary information about the earth's surface. At the same time, the Central Committee must ensure:
precise binding, systematization, selection and integration of all incoming and stored information (single address space);
complexity and clarity of information for decision making;
the possibility of dynamic modeling of processes and phenomena;
the ability to automatically solve problems related to the analysis of territory features;
the ability to quickly analyze the situation in emergency cases.
The history of the development of GIT dates back to the work of R. Tomlison on the creation of the Canadian GIS (CGIS), carried out in 1963-1971.
In a broad sense, GIT is data sets and analytical tools for working with coordinated information. GIT is not information technology in geography, but information technology for processing geographically organized information.
The essence of the GIT is manifested in its ability to connect some descriptive (attributive) information (primarily alphanumeric and other graphic, sound and video information) with cartographic (graphic) objects. Typically, alphanumeric information is organized in the form of tables in a relational database. In the simplest case, each graphical object (and usually point, linear and area objects are distinguished) is assigned a table row - a record in the database. The use of such a connection, in fact, opens up such rich functionality for GIT. These capabilities naturally vary from system to system, but there is a basic set of functions typically found in any GIT implementation, such as the ability to answer questions like “what is this?” indicating the object on the map and “where is it located?” highlighting on the map objects selected according to some condition in the database. The basic ones can also include the answer to the question “what’s nearby?” and its various modifications. Historically, the first and most universal use of GIT is information retrieval, help systems. Thus, GIT can be considered as a kind of extension of DB technology for coordinated information. But even in this sense, it represents a new way of integrating and structuring information. This is due to the fact that in the real world most of the information relates to objects for which their spatial position, shape and relative position play an important role, and therefore GIT in many applications significantly expands the capabilities of conventional DBMSs, since GIT are more convenient and intuitive to use and provide the DL with their own “cartographic interface” for organizing a query to the database along with means for generating a “graphical” report. And finally, GIT adds completely new functionality to conventional DBMSs - the use of spatial relationships between objects. The essence of the GIT is manifested in its ability to connect some descriptive (attributive) information (primarily alphanumeric and other graphic, sound and video information) with cartographic (graphic) objects. Typically, alphanumeric information is organized in the form of tables in a relational database. In the simplest case, each graphical object (point, linear or area) is associated with a table row - a record in the database. The use of such a connection provides rich functionality of the GIT. These capabilities naturally vary from system to system, but there is a basic set of functions typically found in any GIT implementation, such as the ability to answer questions like “what is this?” indicating the object on the map and “where is it located?” highlighting on the map objects selected according to some condition in the database. The basic ones can also include the answer to the question “what’s nearby?” and its various modifications. Historically, the first and most universal use of GIT is information retrieval and reference systems.
Thus, GIT can be considered as a kind of extension of DB technology for coordinated information. But even in this sense, it represents a new way of integrating and structuring information. This is due to the fact that in the real world most of the information relates to objects for which their spatial position, shape and relative position play an important role. Consequently, GIT in many applications significantly expands the capabilities of conventional DBMSs.
GIT, like any other technology, is focused on solving a certain range of problems. Since the areas of application of GIS are quite wide (military affairs, cartography, geography, urban planning, organization of transport dispatch services, etc.), due to the specifics of the problems solved in each of them, and the features associated with a specific class of problems being solved and with requirements for input and output data, accuracy, technical means, etc., it is quite problematic to talk about any single GIS technology.
At the same time, any GIT includes a number of operations that can be considered as basic. They differ in specific implementations only in details, for example, a software service for scanning and post-scan processing, the capabilities of geometric transformation of the source image depending on the initial requirements and quality of the material, etc.
GIS structure and functions
Geographic information systems include five key components: hardware, software, data, performers and methods.
Hardware. This is the computer running the GIS. Currently, GIS works on various types computing platforms, from centralized servers to individual or networked desktop computers.
GIS software contains the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and visualize geographic (spatial) information. Key Components software products are:
Tools for entering and operating geographic information database management system (DBMS or DBMS);
Tools to support spatial queries, analysis and visualization (display);
Graphical user interface (GUI or GUI) for easy access to tools and functions.
Data is probably the most important component. Spatial location data (geographic data) and associated tabular data can be collected and prepared by the user or purchased from suppliers. In the process of managing spatial data, a geographic information system combines (or better yet, combines) geographic information with data of other types. For example, already accumulated data on the population, the nature of the soil, the proximity of dangerous objects, etc. (depending on the task that will have to be solved using GIS) can be associated with a specific piece of an electronic map. Moreover, in complex, distributed systems for collecting and processing information, it is often not existing data that is associated with an object on the map, but its source, which makes it possible to monitor the status of these objects in real time. This approach is used, for example, to combat emergency situations such as forest fires or epidemics.
Executors are people who work with software products and develop plans for using them to solve real problems. It may seem strange that people working with software, are considered as component GIS, however, this has its own meaning. The fact is that for the effective operation of a geographic information system, it is necessary to comply with the methods provided by the developers, therefore, without trained performers, even the most successful development may lose all meaning.
GIS users can be both technical specialists who develop and maintain the system, and ordinary employees (end users) to whom GIS helps solve current everyday affairs and problems.
Methods. The success and efficiency (including economic) of using GIS largely depends on a properly drawn up plan and work rules, which are drawn up in accordance with the specific tasks and work of each organization.
The GIS structure, as a rule, includes four mandatory subsystems:
1) Data input, providing input and/or processing of spatial data obtained from maps, remote sensing materials, etc.;
2) Storage and retrieval, which allows you to quickly obtain data for appropriate analysis, update and correct them;
3) Processing and analysis, which makes it possible to evaluate parameters and solve calculation and analytical problems;
4) Presentation (distribution) of data in various forms (maps, tables, images, block diagrams, digital terrain models, etc.)
Thus, the creation of maps in the circle of “responsibilities” of GIS is far from the first place, because in order to get a hard copy of the map, most of the GIS functions are not needed at all, or they are used indirectly. However, both in global and domestic practice, GIS is widely used specifically for preparing maps for publication and, to a lesser extent, for analytical processing of spatial data or managing the flow of goods and services.
CONCLUSION
The use of geographic information systems not only modifies our ideas about the ways of understanding reality, but also makes significant adjustments to the theoretical foundations of mapping. As A.M. figuratively writes. Berlyant, “Electronic maps no longer smell of printing ink, but wink from the screen with bright lights of icons and chameleonically change color depending on our desire and mood.” The synthesis of geoinformation technologies and the Internet space gives grounds to talk about a special geoinformation space.
In principle, the main stages of computer mapping coincide with the stages of conventional historical research, but some specific points should be emphasized. First of all, they are associated with searching for sources and preparing them for analysis. Spatial analysis requires, in addition to the creation of databases (mainly statistical) that are already familiar to the historian, the selection of cartographic sources, and this, in turn, is impossible without an understanding of traditional methods of making maps, knowledge of the history of cartography, an understanding of projections, etc. The process of creating a source for analysis is fundamentally new for computer source studies, since it involves .
Related information.
GIS products produced in the Russian Federation have gained weight and functionality
Exactly seven years have passed since PC Week/RE published a review of the prospects for universal Russian GIS (www.pcweek.ru/Year2000/ N28/CP1251/GeoInfSystems/chapt1.htm) and wondered whether local manufacturers will survive or be demolished a powerful stream from the West. In general, the author of the article was interested in “who will win?”, but in reality everything turned out quite well: both Russian and foreign developers in our country coexist peacefully and find their consumers. It is gratifying that most of the manufacturers of interesting and promising products have not sunk into oblivion - both the TsGI IG RAS (Center for Geoinformation Research of the Institute of Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences, geocnt. geonet.ru), and the Ufa company "Integro" (www.integro.ru), and KB "Panorama" (www.gisinfo.ru) and the company "RADOM-T" (www.objectland.ru) are thriving and developing steadily. True, there were some losses - the company "Laneko", the developer of the GIS "Park", left the race, and the company "Trisoft" (www.trisoftrus.com) no longer releases new versions of the Sinteks ABRIS geoinformation software, although it supports its users and continues to carry out GIS projects, but using ESRI products. The St. Petersburg enterprise CSI Software (www.trace.ru), which appeared in the review seven years ago, is currently focused on releasing software for complex information systems, including a geoinformation component; in particular, it supports the Yellow Pages website (www.yell.ru) and cartographic search engine Go2Map (www.go2map.ru). This enterprise solves transport and monitoring problems using GIS and creates cartographic Internet applications and software for mobile devices.
GIS ObjectLand
In general, our country owes the emergence of domestically produced GIS not least to the poverty of potential customers. Of course, a cramped financial situation in itself is not a guarantee of progress, but in our case this was exactly the case: almost all Russian GIS known and in demand today were created in the 90s, when the need for them became obvious, but financial The capabilities of research institutes, universities and city administrations did not allow them to buy expensive foreign developments. In particular, the Central Geological Institute of the Institute of Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Panorama Design Bureau released their first products in 1991, the RADOM-T company in 1993, and the Integro company in 1998.
Stronghold of Russia's geoinformation stability
As for the TsGI IG RAS, this institute is absolutely not characterized by any technological or organizational problems. He methodically works in the field of development of technologies for creating and integrating spatial data, considering the release of software as an integral part of the preparation work regulatory documents, technological processes, personnel training and assistance in launching specialized geographic information centers. Currently, the Central Geological Institute of the Institute of Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences produces a professional geoinformation system "GeoGraph GIS" (geocnt.geonet.ru/rus/gg20.html), an ActiveX component package for creating applied GIS "GeoConstructor" (geocnt. geonet.ru/rus/gc20. html) and a tool for publishing maps on the Internet GeoConstructor Web (geocnt.geonet.ru/rus/gc_ web.html). As Nikolai Kazantsev, head of the Central Geological Institute of the Institute of Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences, told PC Week/RE, in 2006, a mechanism for synchronizing non-topological layers during their multi-user editing on a LAN was built into the company’s products, and GIS functionality was also developed and supplemented to ensure the organization and provision of spatial data according to " Concept for the creation and development of spatial data infrastructure of the Russian Federation", adopted by Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of August 21, 2006 N 1157-r. TsGI IG RAS takes an active part in the development of regulatory legal documents in this area, including the first national standards. This direction is extremely important for solving practical problems - in particular, streamlining the situation with land tax, the collection of which, due to problems with the reliability and completeness of spatial data, is approximately 10-20% of the possible. “The use of geographic information technologies and increasing the completeness and reliability of data on land plots made it possible to increase the amount of land tax in the Mytishchi municipal district last year by more than four times,” noted Nikolai Nikolaevich. “Modern GIS technologies in Russia will be effective only if they are solution-oriented the widespread problem of incompleteness, unreliability and inconsistency of spatial data about the same objects provided by various organizations, ensuring the legal status of this data and creating systems for sharing responsibility for them."
GIS “Map 2005”
A non-trivial product written in Visual SmallTalk
GIS ObjectLand, created and distributed by the company "RADOM-T", is a multi-user system that, in addition to standard GIS functions, has extensive capabilities for integrating data from external sources, managing access rights to geodata and programming capabilities for third-party developers using the system's software core. The ObjectLand GIS is primarily associated with the land registry, although this association is only historical, in fact ObjectLand is a universal GIS for use in any subject areas. ObjectLand is used most intensively in institutions of Rosnedvizhimost, being part of the “Unified State Register lands." Currently, the product is used in approximately 1,700 land cadastral chambers of Russia. By the way, in 2005 the magazine PC Magazine/RE noted ObjectLand among the best software products in Russia and awarded the "Best Soft 2005" award. Among other industries, ObjectLand is actively used in JSC Russian Railways, where, through the efforts of the department of geographic information technologies of the VNIIAS Ministry of Railways, a set of works has been carried out to collect and prepare spatial data on the Russian railway network.
The cost of the GIS ObjectLand program for one user is 3,000 rubles, for five users - 7,500 rubles. As the project managers note, it became possible to offer such affordable prices after switching to an online sales method. For evaluation and non-commercial use of the software, a special version is offered that does not have any functional or quantitative limitations compared to the commercial version of the product. The only difference is that when displaying and printing maps, an inscription is always displayed in one of the corners, reminding you of the non-commercial nature of the version being used. This version of the ObjectLand GIS can be used free of charge for training in all educational institutions. By the way, the company "RADOM-T" is the only one from the entire list that is actively trying to enter the world market, offering both Russian and English versions of the product (www.gis-objectland.com).
According to the developers, work on the new version ObjectLand 2.7, which will provide storage of spatial data in external databases. This version provides support for DBMS MS SQL, Oracle, DB2, Interbase, MS Access,
M.S.D.E., M.S. SQL Server Express, MySQL, PostgreSQL and Firebird. Of course, the existing capabilities for storing geodata in the internal DBMS will also remain.
GIS star on the Ufa horizon
The Integro Center for System Research, once called Albeya, is a large manufacturer of universal geoinformation software in Russia. In recent years, the company has developed, implementing complex projects to automate property tasks, as well as the sphere of regulating urban development for municipal and regional organizations. The company's product line includes the InGEO GIS (www.integro.ru/projects/gis/main_gis.htm), which allows you to generate vector topographic maps with the correct topological structure, based on the results of land inventory and equipped with plans of settlements and general plans of enterprises , as well as diagrams of engineering networks and communications. The InGEO software includes a data server that provides access to spatial information in multi-user mode, an application server, the InGEO MapX OCX control element, and the InGEO MapW Web server, which includes the InGEO MapJ Java applet. In addition, the standard delivery package contains a conversion utility to various formats and a spatial data optimization tool that allows you to reduce the volume of files, as well as a set of InGEO software modules in VBScript, which, in particular, make it possible to collectively manage the visibility of maps and layers. The InGEO GIS has a built-in programming environment for developing program modules in VBScript and JavaScript.
In addition, Integro supplies Monitoring-InGEO software for creating cadastral systems based on intranet technologies and capable of storing information about urban infrastructure objects within one application. The product is designed for architecture and urban planning authorities, land committees, municipal property management committees, BTI and housing organizations. "Monitoring-InGEO" includes the following modules: "Resources", designed to record objects of movable and immovable property, "Regulations", which allows you to maintain urban planning, environmental and architectural-historical regulations of the city, as well as "Network", which ensures the collection of data from remote computers, located in the city's engineering services. Integro also offers "Property" software for automating the activities of organizations that account for and manage buildings and premises, land plots, movable property and property complexes.
If we talk about the plans of the enterprise, then, as its director Vadim Gorbachev said, in 2007-2008. a major reconstruction of the InGEO GIS is expected in order to expand functionality system and greater integration with the Monitoring and Property applications. The issue of transfer in 2007-2009 is being actively discussed. the company's products based on Open Source technology, in particular the Eclipse platform. By the way, the price of the InGEO GIS network kit has not changed for many years and is 48 thousand rubles. no limit on the number of client seats. The growth in sales of Integro products in 2006 compared to 2005 was 26%. Total number of officially purchased copies only network configuration GIS "InGEO" at the beginning of 2007 reached 443 sets. This system is most widespread in the Ural, Volga and Northwestern federal districts of Russia.
Military Roots of Civilian GIS
Initially, the GIS "Panorama" was created by the topographic service of the RF Armed Forces and was intended for military purposes, but later it gained great popularity among civilian users. At the moment, the improvement and promotion of the solution is carried out by Panorama CJSC, formed in 2001 by uniting developers of products of the same name. The company offers the widest range of software among all the lines mentioned in this review. In particular, the family includes the universal GIS "Map 2005" with tools for creating and editing electronic maps in multi-user mode, measurements and calculations, building three-dimensional models, processing raster data, generating orthomosaics and creating elevation matrices. The product also has thematic mapping tools, prepares maps for publication, and allows you to work with GPS receivers and databases using query design and reporting tools.
In addition, the company produces a GIS server application, GIS WebServer, developed using ASP.NET technology and operating under IIS in the .NET Framework 2.0 environment. The solution is intended for publishing electronic maps and information from databases on the network and allows you to display data on territorially referenced objects on a topographic map, view and sort tables. The software has the functions of scaling, scrolling, resizing images and provides search and selection of map objects. The product line also includes the “Panorama Editor” vectorizer, specialized software “Geodetic Calculation Block” for processing field geodetic survey data, and “Navigator 2005” software. The latter is intended for viewing and printing maps, raster images, matrices and three-dimensional models created in the GIS "Map 2005", as well as for connecting GPS receivers. They also offer a GIS viewer and a MapView solution for PDAs, which allows you to work with satellite navigation information receivers.
The Panorama portfolio also includes a specialized solution “Real Estate”, designed to automate the collection, systematization and recording of information about real estate objects with their subsequent linking to land plots, as well as the “Land and Law” system for accounting and registration of land holdings, which ensures the collection , accumulation, storage and use of land cadastral data. There is also a tool for developing GIS applications GIS Toolkit - a set of cartographic components for creating applications in the visual programming environment Delphi/Kylix, Builder C++ and libraries for Microsoft Visual C++.
Interestingly, Panorama products are used by many Russian government agencies. In particular, it was on this software that the GIS “Drugs” was based, created within the framework of the federal target program “Comprehensive measures to combat drug abuse and illicit trafficking” and, among other things, aimed at identifying areas of possible growth of drug-containing crops.
8. Geoinformation technologies. Geomatics.
GIS technologies are the technological basis for creating geographic information systems, allowing them to realize their functionality. In its most general form, GIS technologies can be divided into software and computer hardware. A large number of specialists are engaged in geoinformatics and geoinformation technologies. Some of them are engaged in the creation of general and specialized software, the other is in the development of methods for using GIS technologies in practice. The majority of specialists are engaged in practical work in various industries.
Geoinformation technologies can be defined as a set of software and technological tools for obtaining new types of information about the world around us. Geoinformation technologies are designed to improve the efficiency of: management processes, storage and presentation of information, processing and decision support. GIS has a number of features that must be taken into account when studying these systems. One of the features of GIS and geographic information technologies is that they are elements of the informatization of society. This consists of the introduction of GIS and geographic information technologies into science, production, education and the practical application of the information received about the surrounding reality. Geoinformation technologies are new information technologies aimed at achieving various goals, including informatization of production and management processes.
Another feature of GIS is that it is an integrated information system. Integrated systems are built on the principles of integrating technologies of various systems. They are often used in so many different areas that their name often does not describe all their capabilities and functions.
Technical include automated scientific research systems (ASRS), computer-aided design systems (CAD), flexible production systems (GPS), robotic complexes (RTC), etc.
Currently, in accordance with the requirements of new information technologies, many control systems are being created and operate, related to the need to display information on an electronic map.
These control systems regulate the activities of technical and social systems operating in a certain operational space (geographical, economic, etc.) with a clearly defined spatial nature. When solving problems of social and technical regulation, management systems use a lot of spatial information: topography, hydrography, infrastructure, communications, location of objects.
Geoinformation technologies are intended for the widespread introduction into practice of methods and tools for working with spatio-temporal data, presented in the form of a system of electronic maps, and subject-oriented environments for processing heterogeneous information for various categories of users.
The main class of geographic information systems (GIS) data is coordinate data, containing geometric information and reflecting the spatial aspect. The main types of coordinate data: point (nodes, vertices), line (open), contour (closed line), polygon (area, region). In practice, a larger number of data are used to construct real objects (for example, a dangling node, a pseudo-knot, a normal node, a covering, a layer, etc.).
Geoinformation technologies
GIS, or Geographic Information Systems, are computer systems that allow you to effectively work with spatially distributed information. They are a natural extension of the concept of Databases, complementing them with clarity of presentation and the ability to solve problems of spatial analysis.
In almost any field of activity we encounter information of this kind, presented in the form of maps, plans, diagrams, diagrams, etc. This could be a metro map or a building plan, a map of environmental monitoring of the territory or a diagram of the relationships between company offices, a land cadastre atlas or a map natural resources and much, much more. GIS makes it possible to accumulate and analyze such information, quickly find the necessary information and display it in an easy-to-use form. The use of GIS technologies can dramatically increase the efficiency and quality of work with spatially distributed information compared to traditional “paper” methods.
Advantages of geographic information technologies. Using GIS technologies, you get the opportunity to: significantly increase the efficiency of all stages of working with spatially distributed data, from entering initial information, its analysis and to developing a specific solution; use modern electronic geodesy tools and global positioning systems (GPS) to enter and update information in the database, which means constantly having the most accurate and up-to-date information; secure high competence of specialists developing software for GIS systems; in order to use, for example, programs for calculating the spread of pollution, you do not need to have a mathematical background.
Areas of application of geographic information technologies. The areas of application of GIS today are extremely diverse: land management, resource control, ecology, municipal management, transport, economics, social problems and much more. In Russia there is an explosive growth of interest in these technologies.
Traditionally, GIS technologies are used in the land cadastre, natural resources cadastre, ecology, real estate and other areas that require operational resource management and decision-making. Nowadays, GIS systems for mass use, such as electronic city plans, traffic patterns, etc., are increasingly being introduced. According to some estimates, up to 80-90% of all information that we usually deal with can be presented in the form of GIS.GIS - this is a logical stage on the path to the transition to paperless information processing technology, opening up new wide possibilities for manipulating spatially referenced data.
« Geomatics- a modern discipline that combines the collection, modeling, analysis and management of spatially referenced data (works with data identified according to their locations). Based on advances in geography and geodesy, geomatics uses land, sea, air and satellite sensors to obtain spatial and spatially related data. It involves the process of converting spatially referenced data with certain accuracy characteristics from various sources into conventional information systems.” The desire for the integration of knowledge is so great that it has led to the emergence of new directions, one of which is “geomatics”. This term combines geosciences, mathematics and computer science.
There is often an equal sign between geomatics and geoinformatics. Geomatics, by definition, is a scientific and technical discipline aimed at solving problems of reality based on geoinformation, i.e. information related to the geomatic (geographic information) system. Geomatics includes disciplines such as mathematics, physics, computer science, cartography, geodesy, photogrammetry and remote sensing. Geomatics is a field of scientific and technical activity that, based on a systems approach, integrates all means of collecting and managing spatially coordinated data used for the production and management of spatially coordinated information. Geomatics is a field of science and technology that deals with the use of information technology and communications to collect, store, analyze, present, disseminate and manage spatially coordinated information to support decision making. Geomatics is the science and technology that studies the nature and structure of spatial information, methods of its collection, organization, classification, evaluation, analysis, management, display and dissemination, as well as the infrastructure necessary for optimal use this information.
The geomatics curriculum includes 4 main sections:
Data collection - field surveys, photogrammetry, derivative mapping, georeferencing, remote sensing, global positioning systems.
Processing - calculations, evaluation, interpretation, analysis, quality control, data storage
Management - data fusion, editing, modeling, planning, decision making, marketing, quality analysis, legal basis, interaction with the client (user), data transfer standards, copyrights
Dissemination - creation of maps, plans, diagrams, reports, digital models, obtaining coordinated socio-economic information, screen display, design, data distribution, etc.
It must be said that most GIS samples that come to Russia are those that are focused either on working mainly with small-scale maps (for example, M1:1000000 - M1:50000), or on business analysis of geographically distributed information, and for displaying maps in such systems The aim is not to meet all the necessary standards for the presentation of cartographic information.
At the forefront of geoinformatics - in the field of working with very rich and cumbersome large-scale (M1: 2000 or M1: 500) city maps, such Western GIS are not very well suited. Other GIS, which are designed to simulate complex dynamic processes occurring in urban areas, or physical processes in engineering communications, cost many thousands of dollars for each workplace, and therefore the prospects for their sales in Russia during the crisis are very poor. They are practically not imported into our country. Most of the products sold are not the most developed products, which are difficult to apply at the city level to the extent that most city services need it.
Here are some GIS that may be of interest.
GIS systems such as ArcInfo and ArcView GIS have proven themselves to be the most effective for working with small-scale “natural” maps (geology, agriculture, navigation, ecology, etc.). Both systems were developed by the American company ESRI (www.esri.com., www.dataplus.ru.) and are very widespread in the world.
Among the relatively simple Western GIS, which began their pedigree with the analysis of territories to the extent necessary for business and relatively simple applications, we can name the MapInfo system, which is also very widespread in the world. This system is progressing very quickly and today can compete with the most developed GIS.
The Intergraph Corporation (www.intergraph.com) supplies the MGE GIS, which is based on the AutoCAD-like MicroStation system, produced in turn by Bently. The MGE system is a whole family of different software products that help solve a wide variety of problems existing in the field of geoinformatics.
All of these products also have Internet GIS servers that allow you to publish digital maps on the Internet. True, we have to talk only about viewers, since today it is impossible to provide editing of topological maps from a remote Internet client due to the insufficient development of both GIS and Internet technologies.
Just recently, Microsoft entered the GIS market, thereby confirming that GIS will in the near future become a system that every more or less self-respecting user should have on their computer, just as they have Excel or Word today. Microsoft released the MapPoint product (Microsoft MapPoint 2000 Business Mapping Software), which was included in Office 2000. This component of the office product will be focused primarily on business planning and analysis.
Domestic gis
A repetition of the ArcInfo concept, but much inferior to the latter in terms of functional completeness, is the domestic GeoDraw system, developed at the Central Geological Institute IGRAN (Moscow). Its capabilities are limited today mainly to small-scale maps. From our point of view, the “elder” of domestic geoinformatics, GIS Sinteks ABRIS, looks much “stronger” here. The latter has well-presented functions for analyzing spatial information.
In geology, GIS PARK (Laneko, Moscow) has a strong position, which also implements unique methods for modeling relevant processes.
The most “advanced” in the field of presentation and maintenance of large-scale rich maps of cities and general plans of large enterprises can be considered two domestic systems: GeoCosm (GEOID, Gelendzhik) and “InGeo” (CSR Integro, Ufa, www.integro.ru ). These systems are among the youngest and therefore were developed immediately using the most modern technologies. And the InGeo system was developed not so much by surveyors as by specialists who consider themselves professionals in the field of simulation modeling and cadastral systems.
In general, in Russia, almost every organization creates its own GIS. However, as we wanted to show in this article, this process is very difficult, and the probability of its completion being unsuccessful is incomparably higher than the probability of problem-free implementation, not to mention the possibility of a commercial product being released that allows alienation
